Gender and development: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 00:34, 30 September 2024

Revision as of 15:38, 15 December 2024

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''Observations of Gender Identity Formation''

Educators have made abundant observations regarding children's expression of gender identity. From aan earlier age, children absorb information about gender from various sources, including family, peers, media, and societal norms (Halim, Ruble, Tamis-LeMonda, & Shrout, 2010<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA PsycNet |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-08588-024 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=psycnet.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>). These influences shape their perceptions and behaviors related to gender, leading them to either conform to or challenge gender stereotypes. An example could be when children may exhibit preferences for certain toys, activities, or clothing based on societal expectations associated with their perceived gender because that is what was handed to them or what was made okay from an authority figure, establishing a baseline.

''Teacher Research''

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''Expressions and Behavior Reflecting Gender Development''

Children's expressions provide insights into their changing understanding of gender roles and relationships. However, it is necessary to be able to demonstrate processes of emotional regulation in situations where the individual needs an adjustment of the emotional response of larger intensity (Sanchis et. al. 2020<ref>{{Cite web |title=APA PsycNet |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2020-41706-001 |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=psycnet.apa.org |language=en}}</ref>). Some children can develop stern understandings about gender stereotypes, showing a bias or discrimination towards those who do not conform to these norms. Educators play a role in counteracting these beliefs by providing opportunities for reflection and promoting empathy and respect for diverse gender identities (Martin & Ruble, 2010<ref name=":0" />).

''Educational Strategies''

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GAD departs from WID, which discussed women's subordination and lack of inclusion in discussions of international development without examining broader systems of gender relations.<ref>{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=3|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s, some practitioners working in the development field questioned focusing on women in isolation.<ref name="Razavi 1995 12">{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=12|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref> GAD challenged the WID focus on women as an important ‘target group’<ref>{{cite report|last=Razavi |first=Shahrashoub |author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse |date=1 February 1995|page=8| hdl=10419/148819 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> and ‘untapped resources’ for development.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moser |first=Caroline |title=Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practice and Training |year=1993|publisher=Routledge|___location=New York |isbn=978-0-203-41194-0 |page=2}}</ref> GAD marked a shift in thinking about the need to understand how women and men are socially constructed and how ‘those constructions are powerfully reinforced by the social activities that both define and are defined by them.’<ref name="Razavi 1995 12" /> GAD focuses primarily on the gendered division of labor and gender as a relation of power embedded in institutions.<ref name="Reeves 2000 8" /> Consequently, two major frameworks, ‘Gender roles’ and ‘social relations analysis’, are used in this approach.<ref>{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=13|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref> 'Gender roles' focuses on the social construction of identities within the household; it also reveals the expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness’<ref name="Razavi 1995 12" /> in their relative access to resources. 'Social relations analysis' exposes the social dimensions of hierarchical power relations embedded in social institutions, as well as its determining influence on ‘the relative position of men and women in society.’<ref name="Razavi 1995 12" /> This relative positioning tends to discriminate against women.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reeves|first=Hazel|title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions|year=2000|___location=Brighton|isbn=1-85864-381-3|page=18}}</ref>

Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies [[gender analysis]] to uncover the ways in which men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and efficiency.{{sfn|Shifting views...}} In an attempt to create gender equality (denoting women having the same opportunities as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere),<ref>Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 1998, p.7</ref> GAD policies aim to redefine traditional gender role expectations. Women are expected to fulfill household management tasks, home-based production as well as bearing and raising children and caring for family members. In terms of children, they develop social constructions through observations at a younger age than most people think. Children tend to learn about the differences between male and female actions and objects of use in a specific culture of their environment through observation (Chung & Huang 2021<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Yi |last2=Huang |first2=Hsin-Hui |date=2021-12-10 |title=Cognitive-Based Interventions Break Gender Stereotypes in Kindergarten Children |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=24 |pages=13052 |doi=10.3390/ijerph182413052 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=8700911 |pmid=34948661}}</ref>). Around three years old, children learn about stability of gender and demonstrate stereotyping similar to adults regarding toys, clothes, activities, games, colors, and even specific personality descriptions. (2021<ref name=":4" />). By five years of age, they begin to develop identity and to possess stereotyping of personal–social attributes (2021<ref name=":4" />). At that age of their life, children think that they are more similar to their same-gender peers and are likely to compare themselves with characteristics that fit the gender stereotype. After entering primary school, children’schildren's gender stereotyping extends to more dimensions, such as career choices, sports, motives to learn subjects which has an impact on the cognition of individuals (2021).<ref name=":4" /> The role of a wife is largely interpreted as 'the responsibilities of motherhood.'<ref>{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=30|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Men, however, are expected to be breadwinners, associated with paid work and market production.<ref name="Reeves 2000 8" /> In the labor market, women tend to earn less than men. For instance, 'a study by the Equality and Human Rights Commission found massive pay inequities in some United Kingdom's top finance companies, women received around 80 percent less performance-related pay than their male colleagues.'<ref>{{cite journal|last=Prügl|first=Elizabeth|title=''If Lehman Brothers Had Been Lehman Sisters...'': Gender and Myth in the Aftermath of the Financial Crisis|journal=International Political Sociology|date=14 March 2012|volume=6|issue=1|page=25|doi=10.1111/j.1749-5687.2011.00149.x}}</ref> In response to pervasive gender inequalities, [[Fourth World Conference on Women#Beijing Platform for Action|Beijing Platform for Action]] established [[gender mainstreaming]] in 1995 as a strategy across all policy areas at all levels of governance for achieving gender equality.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Re-Thinking Women's Empowerment and Gender Equality in 2015 and Beyond|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/GENDER/PDF/BPEN.pdf|journal=United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|pages=2–7}}</ref>

GAD has been largely utilized in debates regarding development but this trend is not seen in the actual practice of developmental agencies and plans for development.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Gender and the Political Economy of Development|last=Rai|first=Shirin M.|publisher=Polity|year=2002|isbn=0-7456-1490-6|___location=Malden|pages=44–83|chapter=Gender and Development}}</ref> [[Caroline Moser]] claims WID persists due to the challenging nature of GAD, but [[Shirin M. Rai]] counters this claim noting that the real issue lies in the tendency to overlap WID and GAD in policy. Therefore, it would only be possible if development agencies fully adopted GAD language exclusively.<ref name=":5" /> Caroline Moser developed the [[Moser Gender Planning Framework]] for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning Unit of the [[University of London]]. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and planning.{{sfn|March|Smyth|Mukhopadhyay|1999|pp = 55}}

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There were numerous case studies done in Tanzania about the correlation of the role of [[Microfinance in Tanzania|SACCoS]] (savings and credit cooperative organization) and the economic development of the country. The research showed that the microfinance policies were not being carried out in the most efficient ways due to exploitation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brennan|first=James R.|date=November 2006|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=47|issue=3|pages=389–413|doi=10.1017/S0021853706001794|issn=1469-5138|title=Blood Enemies: Exploitation and Urban Citizenship in the Nationalist Political Thought of Tanzania, 1958–75|s2cid=144117250|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/4155/1/BloodEnemies.pdf}}</ref> One case study went a step further to claim that this financial service could provide a more equal society for women in Tanzania.<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Cooper|first=Lucy-George|date=April 22, 2014|title=The Impact of Microfinance on Female Entrepreneurs in Tanzania|url=https://publications.lakeforest.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=seniortheses |type=Bachelor's |publisher=Lake Forstest College |oclc=ocn892344250}}{{better source needed|date=April 2023|reason=Per [[WP:SCHOLARSHIP]] only published PhDs are considered reliable sources}}</ref>

While there are such cases in which women were able to lift themselves out of poverty, there are also cases in which women fell into a [[poverty trap]] as they were unable to repay their loans.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/11/01/500093608/you-asked-we-answer-can-tiny-loans-lift-women-out-of-poverty|title=You Asked, We Answer: Can Microloans Lift Women Out Of Poverty?|work=NPR.org|access-date=2018-03-01}}</ref> It is even said that microcredit is actually an "anti-developmental" approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bateman, Chang|first=Milford, Ha-Joon|date=2012|title=Microfinance and the Illusion of Development: From Hubris to Nemesis in Thirty Years|url=http://wer.worldeconomicsassociation.org/files/WER-Vol1-No1-Article2-Bateman-and-Chang-v2.pdf|journal=World Economic Review|volume=1|pages=13–36}}</ref> There is little evidence of significant development for these women within the 30 years that the microfinance has been around.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization: economics as if all people mattered|last=Benería|first=Lourdes|publisher=New York; London : Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group|year=2016|isbn=9780415537483|pages=106}}</ref> In South Africa, unemployment is high due to the introduction of microfinance, more so than it was under apartheid.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Banerjee|first1=Abhijit|last2=Galiani|first2=Sebastian|last3=Levinsohn|first3=Jim|last4=McLaren|first4=Zoë|last5=Woolard|first5=Ingrid|title=Why Has Unemployment Risen in the New South Africa |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 13167 |date=June 2007 |doi=10.3386/w13167|doi-access=free}}</ref> Microcredit intensified poverty in Johannesburg, South Africa as poor communities, mostly women, who needed to repay debt were forced to work in the informal sector.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cohen|first=Jennifer|date=July 2010|title=How the global economic crisis reaches marginalised workers: the case of street traders in Johannesburg, South Africa|journal=Gender and Development|volume=18|issue=2|pages=277–289|doi=10.1080/13552074.2010.491345|s2cid=154585808}}</ref>

Some arguments that microcredit is not effective insist that the structure of the economy, with large informal and agriculture sectors, do not provide a system in which borrowers can be successful. In Nigeria, where the informal economy is approximately 45–60% of economy, women working within it could not attain access to microcredit because of the high demand for loans triggered by high unemployment rates in the formal sector. This study found Nigerian woman are forced into “the hustle” and enhanced risk of the informal economy, which is unpredictable and contributes to women's inability to repay the loans.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Madichie|first1=Nnamdi O.|last2=Nkamnebe|first2=Anayo D.|date=2010-06-15|title=Micro-credit for microenterprises?|journal=Gender in Management|volume=25|issue=4|pages=301–319|doi=10.1108/17542411011048173|issn=1754-2413}}</ref>&nbsp; Another example from a study conducted in Arampur, Bangladesh, found that microcredit programs within the agrarian community do not effectively help the borrower pay their loan because the terms of the loan are not compatible with farm work. If was found that MFIs force borrowers to repay before the harvesting season starts and in some cases endure the struggles of sharecropping work that is funded by the loan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Paprocki|first=Kasia|date=August 2016|title='Selling Our Own Skin:' Social dispossession through microcredit in rural Bangladesh|journal=Geoforum|volume=74|pages=29–38|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.05.008|issn=0016-7185}}</ref>

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* Eisenstein, Hester (2009). Feminism Seduced: How Global Elites Use Women's Labor and Ideas to Exploit the World. Boulder: Paradigm Publishers. {{ISBN|1594516596}}. Retrieved 25 November 2013.

* Elizabeth Wilson. Women and the Welfare State. Routledge.

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* Moser, Caroline (1993). Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practice and Training. New York: Routledge. p.&nbsp;3.

* Moser, Caroline O.N. (1995). Gender planning and development: theory, practice and training(Reprint. ed.). London [u.a.]: Routledge.{{ISBN|0415056209}}.

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* {{cite journal |last1=Prügl |first1=Elisabeth |title='If Lehman Brothers Had Been Lehman Sisters...': Gender and Myth in the Aftermath of the Financial Crisis: Gender and Myth in the Aftermath of the Financial Crisis |journal=International Political Sociology |date=March 2012 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=21–35 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-5687.2011.00149.x }}

* Rankin, Katharine N. (2001). "Governing Development: Neoliberalism, Microcredit, and Rational Economic Woman". Economy and Society (Fondation Maison des sciences de l'homme) 30: 20. Retrieved 2 November 2013.

* Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990. “WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice.” The Journal of Developing Areas. 24(4) 289-502289–502

* Razavi, S. [http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BE6B5/search/7F6321E556FA0364C12579220031A129?OpenDocument ‘World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development: An Opportunity Both Welcome and Missed (An Extended Commentary)’.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514231442/http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BE6B5/search/7F6321E556FA0364C12579220031A129?OpenDocument |date=2014-05-14 }} p.&nbsp;2.

* Razavi, Shahrashoub; Miller, Carol (1995)."From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse". United Nations Research Institute Occasional Paper series (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development) 1: 2. Retrieved 22 November 2013.

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*{{cite journal |last1=Schech |first1=S. |last2=Mustafa |first2=M. |title=The Politics of Gender Mainstreaming Poverty Reduction: An Indonesian Case Study |journal=Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society |date=1 March 2010 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=111–135 |doi=10.1093/sp/jxp025 }}

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