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{{short description|Aircraft collision avoidance system}}
A '''traffic alert and collision avoidance system''' ('''TCAS''', pronounced {{IPAc-en|t|i:|k|æ|s}}; ''TEE-kas''), also known as an '''Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS)''',<ref name="NBAA">{{Cite web|url=https://nbaa.org/aircraft-operations/communications-navigation-surveillance-cns/tcas/|title=Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)|website=NBAA - National Business Aviation Association}}</ref> is an [[aircraft collision avoidance systems|aircraft collision avoidance system]] designed to reduce the incidence of [[mid-air collision]] (MAC) between [[aircraft]]. It monitors the [[airspace]] around an aircraft for other aircraft equipped with a corresponding active [[Transponder (aviation)|transponder]], independent of [[air traffic control]], and warns pilots of the presence of other transponder-equipped aircraft which may present a threat of MAC. It is a type of [[airborne collision avoidance system]] mandated by the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] to be fitted to all aircraft with a maximum take-off mass (MTOM) of over {{convert|5700|kg|abbr=on}} or authorized to carry more than 19 passengers. [[Federal Aviation Regulations|CFR 14]], Ch I, part 135 requires that TCAS I be installed for aircraft with 10-30 passengers and TCAS II for aircraft with more than 30 passengers. ACAS/TCAS is based on [[secondary surveillance radar]] (SSR) [[transponder (aviation)|transponder]] signals, but operates independently of ground-based equipment to provide advice to the pilot on potentially conflicting aircraft.
[[File:Tcas EU-Flysafe.jpg|thumb|upright=1.14|Combined TCAS and [[Horizontal situation indicator|EHSI]] cockpit display (color)]]
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== Impetus for a system and history ==
{{for|more examples|Category:Mid-air collisions}}
Research into collision avoidance systems has been ongoing since at least the 1950s, and the airline industry has been working with the [[Air Transport Association of America]] (ATA) since 1955 toward a collision avoidance system. [[ICAO]] and aviation authorities such as the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) were spurred into action by the [[1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision]].<ref name=TCAS71>
Although [[Air traffic control radar beacon system|ATCRBS]] airborne transponders were available, it wasn't until the mid-1970s that research focused on using their signals as the cooperative element for a collision avoidance system. This technical approach enabled an independent collision avoidance capability on the flight deck, separate from the ground system. In 1981, the FAA decided to implement the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), which was developed based on industry and agency efforts in the field of beacon-based collision avoidance systems and air-to-air discrete address communication techniques that used Mode S airborne transponder message formats.<ref name="20-151B">{{citation|title=20-151B – Airworthiness Approval of Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS II), Versions 7.0 & 7.1 and Associated Mode S Transponders|date=March 18, 2014|url=https://www.faa.gov/documentlibrary/media/advisory_circular/ac_20-151b.pdf|page=C1|publisher=faa.gov|access-date=October 13, 2018}}</ref>
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=== System description ===
TCAS involves communication between all aircraft equipped with an appropriate [[transponder (aviation)|transponder]] (provided the transponder is enabled and set up properly). Each TCAS-equipped aircraft interrogates all other aircraft in a determined range about their position (via the 1030 [[MHz]] [[radio]] [[frequency]]), and all other aircraft reply to other interrogations (via 1090 MHz). This interrogation-and-response cycle may occur several times per second.<ref name=TCAS70>
The TCAS system builds a three dimensional map of aircraft in the airspace, incorporating their range (garnered from the interrogation and response round trip time), altitude (as reported by the interrogated aircraft), and bearing (by the [[directional antenna]] from the response). Then, by [[extrapolating]] current range and altitude difference to anticipated future values, it determines if a potential collision threat exists.
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* Clear of conflict
When a TA is issued, pilots are instructed to initiate a visual search for the traffic causing the TA. If the traffic is visually acquired, pilots are instructed to maintain visual separation from the traffic. Training programs also indicate that no horizontal maneuvers are to be made based solely on information shown on the traffic display. Slight adjustments in vertical speed while climbing or descending, or slight adjustments in airspeed while still complying with the ATC clearance are acceptable.<ref name=DOC9863-6>
When an RA is issued, pilots are expected to respond immediately to the RA unless doing so would jeopardize the safe operation of the flight. This means that aircraft will at times have to manoeuver contrary to ATC instructions or disregard ATC instructions. In these cases, the controller is no longer responsible for separation of the aircraft involved in the RA until the conflict is terminated.
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== Safety aspects ==
Safety studies on TCAS estimate that the system improves safety in the airspace by a factor of between 3 and 5.<ref name=ACASA>
However, it is well understood that part of the remaining risk is that TCAS may induce midair collisions: "In particular, it is dependent on the accuracy of the threat aircraft's reported altitude and on the expectation that the threat aircraft will not make an abrupt maneuver that defeats the TCAS Resolution Advisory (RA). The safety study also shows that TCAS II will induce some critical near midair collisions..." (See page 7 of Introduction to TCAS II Version 7 and 7.1 (PDF) in external links below).<ref name="TCAS70" /><ref name="TCAS71" />
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In the future, prediction capabilities may be improved by using the state vector information present in ADS–B messages. Also, since ADS–B messages can be received at greater range than TCAS normally operates, aircraft can be acquired earlier by the TCAS tracking algorithms.
The identity information present in ADS–B messages can be used to label other aircraft on the cockpit display (where present), painting a picture similar to what an air traffic controller would see and improving situational awareness.<ref>
== Versions ==
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TCAS II is the first system that was introduced in 1989 and is the current generation of instrument warning TCAS, used in the majority of [[commercial aviation]] aircraft (see table below). A US Airways 737 was the first aircraft certified with the AlliedBendix (now Honeywell) TCAS II system. It offers all the benefits of TCAS I, but will also offer the pilot direct, vocalized instructions to avoid danger, known as a "Resolution Advisory" (RA). The suggestive action may be "corrective", suggesting the pilot change vertical speed by announcing, ''"Descend, descend"'', ''"Climb, climb"'' or ''"Level off, level off"'' (meaning reduce vertical speed). By contrast a "preventive" RA may be issued which simply warns the pilots not to deviate from their present vertical speed, announcing, ''"Monitor vertical speed"'' or ''"Maintain vertical speed, Maintain"''. TCAS II systems coordinate their resolution advisories before issuing commands to the pilots, so that if one aircraft is instructed to descend, the other will typically be told to climb – maximising the separation between the two aircraft.<ref name="TCAS71" />
As of 2006, the only implementation that meets the ACAS II standards set by [[ICAO]]<ref>
After the [[2002 Überlingen mid-air collision]] (July 1, 2002), studies have been made to improve TCAS II capabilities. Following extensive [[Eurocontrol]] input and pressure, a revised TCAS II Minimum Operational Performance Standards (MOPS) document has been jointly developed by RTCA (Special Committee SC-147<ref name=SC-147>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rtca.org/CMS_DOC/SC-147%20TOR%20Rev9%20-%20PMC%20Approved%20-%2006-10-2010.pdf |title=SC-147 Terms of Reference – Revision 9 |access-date=2011-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929020450/http://www.rtca.org/CMS_DOC/SC-147%20TOR%20Rev9%20-%20PMC%20Approved%20-%2006-10-2010.pdf |archive-date=2011-09-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref>) and EUROCAE. As a result, by 2008 the standards for Version 7.1 of TCAS II have been issued<ref name=SIRE>
TCAS II Version 7.1<ref name="TCAS71" /> will be able to issue RA reversals in coordinated encounters, in case one of the aircraft doesn't follow the original RA instructions (Change proposal CP112E).<ref name=CP112E>[http://adsb.tc.faa.gov/TCAS/CPs/CP112E.pdf Change proposal CP112E] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109091211/http://adsb.tc.faa.gov/TCAS/CPs/CP112E.pdf |date=2009-01-09 }}</ref> Other changes in this version are the replacement of the ambiguous ''"Adjust Vertical Speed, Adjust"'' RA with the ''"Level off, Level off"'' RA, to prevent improper response by the pilots (Change proposal CP115).;<ref name=CP115>[http://adsb.tc.faa.gov/TCAS/CPs/CP115.pdf Change proposal CP115] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109091245/http://adsb.tc.faa.gov/TCAS/CPs/CP115.pdf |date=2009-01-09 }}</ref> and the improved handling of corrective/preventive annunciation and removal of green arc display when a positive RA weakens solely due to an extreme low or high altitude condition (1000 feet AGL or below, or near the aircraft top ceiling) to prevent incorrect and possibly dangerous guidance to the pilot (Change proposal CP116).<ref name="CP116" /><ref name=EUROTCAS71>
Studies conducted for [[Eurocontrol]], using recently recorded operational data, indicate that currently{{when|date=July 2012}} the probability of a [[mid-air collision]] for each flight hour in European airspace is 2.7 x 10<sup>−8</sup> which equates to one in every 3 years. When TCAS II Version 7.1 is implemented, that probability will be reduced by a factor of 4.<ref name="EUROTCAS71" />
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Originally designated TCAS II Enhanced, TCAS III was envisioned as an expansion of the TCAS II concept to include horizontal resolution advisory capability. TCAS III was the "next generation" of collision avoidance technology which underwent development by aviation companies such as [[Honeywell]]. TCAS III incorporated technical upgrades to the TCAS II system, and had the capability to offer traffic advisories and resolve traffic conflicts using ''horizontal'' as well as vertical manoeuvring directives to pilots. For instance, in a head-on situation, one aircraft might be directed, "turn right, climb" while the other would be directed "turn right, descend." This would act to further increase the total separation between aircraft, in both horizontal and vertical aspects. Horizontal directives would be useful in a conflict between two aircraft close to the ground where there may be little if any vertical maneuvering space.<ref name=TCASIII>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ll.mit.edu/mission/aviation/publications/publication-files/atc-reports/Burgess_1995_ATC-231_WW-15318.pdf |title=Project Report ATC-231 |access-date=2011-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613065823/http://www.ll.mit.edu/mission/aviation/publications/publication-files/atc-reports/Burgess_1995_ATC-231_WW-15318.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
TCAS III attempted to use the TCAS directional antenna to assign a bearing to other aircraft, and thus be able to generate a horizontal maneuver (e.g. turn left or right). However, it was judged by the industry to be unfeasible due to limitations in the accuracy of the TCAS directional antennas. The directional antennas were judged not to be accurate enough to generate an accurate horizontal-plane position, and thus an accurate horizontal resolution. By 1995, years of testing and analysis determined that the concept was unworkable using available surveillance technology (due to the inadequacy of horizontal position information), and that horizontal RAs were unlikely to be invoked in most encounter geometries. Hence, all work on TCAS III was suspended and there are no plans for its implementation. The concept has later evolved and been replaced by TCAS IV.<ref name=skybrary>
=== TCAS IV ===
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TCAS IV had replaced the TCAS III concept by the mid-1990s. One of the results of TCAS III experience was that the directional antenna used by the TCAS processor to assign a bearing to a received [[Transponder (aviation)|transponder]] reply was not accurate enough to generate an accurate horizontal position, and thus a safe horizontal resolution. TCAS IV used additional position information encoded on an air-to-air data link to generate the bearing information, so that the accuracy of the directional antenna would not be a factor.
TCAS IV development continued for some years, but the appearance of new trends in data link such as Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast ([[Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast|ADS-B]]) have pointed out a need to re-evaluate whether a data link system dedicated to collision avoidance such as TCAS IV should be incorporated into a more generic system of air-to-air data link for additional applications. As a result of these issues, the TCAS IV concept was abandoned as [[Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast|ADS-B]] development started.<ref name="sci_aeronautics" /><ref name=FAA_TCAS>
== Current implementation ==
Although the system occasionally suffers from false alarms, pilots are now under strict instructions to regard all TCAS messages as genuine alerts demanding an immediate, high-priority response. Only [[Airborne_wind_shear_detection_and_alert_system|Windshear Detection]] and [[Ground Proximity Warning System|GPWS]] alerts and warnings have higher priority than the TCAS. The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]], EASA and most other countries' authorities' rules state that in the case of a conflict between TCAS RA and [[air traffic control]] (ATC) instructions, the TCAS RA always takes precedence. This is mainly because of the TCAS-RA inherently possessing a more current and comprehensive picture of the situation than air traffic controllers, whose [[radar]]/[[Transponder (aviation)|transponder]] updates usually happen at a much slower rate than the TCAS interrogations.<ref name="TCAS70" /><ref name="TCAS71" />
If one aircraft follows a TCAS RA and the other follows conflicting ATC instructions, a collision can occur, such as the July 1, 2002 [[Überlingen mid-air collision|Überlingen disaster]]. In this mid-air collision, both airplanes were fitted with TCAS II Version 7.0 systems which functioned properly, but one obeyed the TCAS advisory while the other ignored the TCAS and obeyed the controller; both aircraft descended into a fatal collision.<ref name=BFUAX001>
This accident could have been prevented if TCAS was able to reverse the original RA for one of the aircraft when it detects that the crew of the other one is not following their original TCAS RA, but conflicting ATC instructions instead. This is one of the features that would later be implemented within Version 7.1 of TCAS II.<ref name="SIRE" /><ref>
Implementation of TCAS II Version 7.1 has been originally planned to start between 2009 and 2011 by retrofitting and forward fitting all the TCAS II equipped aircraft, with the goal that by 2014 the version 7.0 will be completely phased out and replaced by version 7.1. The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] and [[European Aviation Safety Agency|EASA]] have already published the TCAS II Version 7.1 Technical Standard Order (TSO-C119c<ref name=TSO-C119c>[http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgtso.nsf/0/95b393711426c9c78625759b006481ea/$FILE/TSO-C119c.pdf FAA Technical Standard Order TSO-C119c]</ref> and ETSO-C119c,<ref name=ETSO-C119c>
[[ICAO]] has circulated an amendment for formal member state agreement which recommends TCAS II Change 7.1 adoption by 1 January 2014 for forward fit and 1 January 2017 for retrofit. Following the feedback and comments from airline operators, [[European Aviation Safety Agency|EASA]] has proposed the following dates for the TCAS II Version 7.1 mandate in European airspace: forward fit (for new aircraft) 1 March 2012, retrofit (for existing aircraft) 1 December 2015. These dates are proposed dates, subject to further regulatory processes, and are not final until the Implementing Rule has been published.<ref name="EUROTCAS71" />
Among the system manufacturers, by February 2010 ACSS<ref name=ACSS71>{{Cite web |url=http://www.acss.com/change71 |title=ACSS Change 7.1 for TCAS II |access-date=2011-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914103834/http://www.acss.com/change71 |archive-date=2011-09-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref> certified Change 7.1 for their TCAS 2000 and Legacy TCAS II systems,<ref name=ACSSTCAS>
=== Current limitations ===
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|-
|Europe ([[European Aviation Safety Agency|EASA]])
|All civil turbine-powered transport aircraft with more than 30 passenger seats (or MTOM above 15,000 kg)<ref name="eurocontrol">
|TCAS II
|1 January 2000
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|-
|Hong Kong ([[Civil Aviation Department (Hong Kong)|Civil Aviation Department]])
|All aircraft in Hong Kong with more than 9 passenger seats (or MTOM greater than 5,700 kg)<ref name="cad">
|TCAS II Version 7.0
|1 January 2000
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|-
|Peru ([[Directorate General of Civil Aviation of Peru|Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil]])
|All civil turbine-powered transport aircraft with more than 19 passenger seats (or MTOM above 5,700 kg)<ref name="RAP121K">
|ACAS II (Effectively TCAS II Version 7.0)
|1 January 2005
|-
|Argentina ([[National Civil Aviation Administration|ANAC]])
|All civil turbine-powered transport aircraft with more than 19 passenger seats (or MTOM above 5,700 kg)<ref>
|ACAS II (Effectively TCAS II Version 7.0)
|1 December 2014
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