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Added more information about several innovations in 3D graphics and animation at the University of Utah. |
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===The University of Utah===
[[University of Utah|Utah]] was a major center for computer animation in this period. The computer science faculty was founded by [[David C. Evans|David Evans]] in 1965, and many of the basic techniques of 3-D computer graphics were developed here in the early 1970s with [[DARPA|ARPA]] funding (''Advanced Research Projects Agency''). Research results included Gouraud, Phong, and Blinn shading, texture mapping, [[hidden-surface determination|hidden surface]] algorithms, curved [[subdivision surface|surface subdivision]], real-time line-drawing and raster image display hardware, and early virtual reality work.<ref>[http://www.cs.utah.edu/gdc/history/ Utah – Computer Graphics history] (retrieved 2012/04/22)</ref> In the words of Robert Rivlin in his 1986 book ''The Algorithmic Image: Graphic Visions of the Computer Age'', "almost every influential person in the modern computer-graphics community either passed through the University of Utah or came into contact with it in some way".<ref>The algorithmic image: graphic visions of the computer age, ''Harper & Row Publishers, Inc.'' New York, NY, USA 1986. {{ISBN|0914845802}}</ref>
==== Shaded 3D graphics ====
[[File:1967 512x512 Cube Rendering at Univ of Utah.png|thumb|An image of a cube generated at the University of Utah in 1967.]]
In the mid-1960s, one of the most difficult problems in computer graphics was the [[Hidden-line removal|"hidden-line" problem]] – how to render a 3D model while properly removing the lines that should not be visible to the observer.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://bitsavers.org/magazines/Datamation/196605.pdf |title=Datamation |date=May 1966 |pages=22-29}}</ref> One of the first successful approaches to this was published at the 1967 [[Fall Joint Computer Conference]] by Chris Wylie, David Evans, and Gordon Romney, and demonstrated shaded 3D objects such as cubes and [[Tetrahedron|tetrahedra]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wylie |first=Chris |last2=Romney |first2=Gordon |last3=Evans |first3=David |last4=Erdahl |first4=Alan |date=1967-11-14 |title=Half-tone perspective drawings by computer |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1465611.1465619 |journal=Proceedings of the November 14-16, 1967, fall joint computer conference |series=AFIPS '67 (Fall) |___location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |pages=49–58 |doi=10.1145/1465611.1465619 |isbn=978-1-4503-7896-3}}</ref> An improved version of this algorithm was demonstrated in 1968, including shaded renderings of 3D text, spheres, and buildings.<ref>{{Citation |last=Romney |first=Gordon W. |title=Real-time display of computer generated half-tone perspective pictures |date=1998-07-01 |work=Seminal graphics: pioneering efforts that shaped the field, Volume 1 |volume=1 |pages=283–288 |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/280811.281011 |access-date= |place=New York, NY, USA |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |doi=10.1145/280811.281011 |isbn=978-1-58113-052-2 |last2=Watkins |first2=Gary S. |last3=Evans |first3=David C.}}</ref>
A shaded 3D computer animation of a colored [[Soma cube]] exploding into pieces was created at the University of Utah as part of Gordon Romney's 1969 PhD dissertation, along with shaded renderings of 3D text, 3D graphs, trucks, ships, and buildings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gordon W. Romney |url=https://archive.org/details/computerassisted0000unse_p7o2 |title=Computer Assisted Assembly and Rendering of Solids |date=August 1969 |publisher=University of Utah, Computer Science Dept. |others=Internet Archive}}</ref> This paper also coined the term "rendering" in reference to computer drawings of 3D objects. Another 3D shading algorithm was implemented by [[John Warnock]] for his 1969 dissertation.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Warnock |first=John Edward |title=A hidden surface algorithm for computer generated halftone pictures |date=June 1969 |degree=PhD |publisher=The University of Utah |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/book/10.5555/905316 |doi=}}</ref>
[[File:1970 Church Rendering by Watkins at Univ of Utah.png|thumb|A color image of a church generated by the Watkins algorithm at the University of Utah in 1970.]]
A truly real-time shading algorithm was developed by Gary Watkins for his 1970 PhD dissertation, and was the basis of the [[Gouraud shading]] technique, developed the following year.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watkins |first=Gary |url=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/univOfUtah/UTECH-CSc-70-101_Watkins_Dissertation_Jun70.pdf |title=A real-time visible surface algorithm |date=June 1970 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Gouraud |first=Henri |title=Computer display of curved surfaces |date=1971 |degree=PhD |publisher=The University of Utah |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/book/10.5555/905323 |doi=}}</ref> Robert Mahl's 1970 dissertation at the University of Utah described smooth shading of [[Quadric surface|quadric surfaces]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahl |first=Robert |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=704102 |title=Visible surface algorithms for quadric patches |date=December 1970 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref>
Further innovations in shaded 3D graphics at the University of Utah included a more realistic shading technique by [[Bui Tuong Phong]] for his dissertation in 1973 and texture mapping by [[Edwin Catmull]] for his 1974 dissertation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Phong |first=Bui Tuong |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=712686 |title=Illimunation of computer generated images |date=July 1973 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Catmull |first=Edwin Earl |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=2111909 |title=A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces |date=December 1974 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref>
==== Virtual reality ====
Around 1972, a [[virtual reality headset]] known as the "Sorcerer's Apprentice" became operational at the University of Utah, which used [[head tracking]] and a device similar to [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s Lincoln Wand to track the user's hand in 3D space.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=706529 |title=Graphical man/machine communications |date=December 1972 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref> This headset, like Ivan Sutherland's [[The Sword of Damocles (virtual reality)|"Sword of Damocles"]], was capable of simple, unshaded [[Wire-frame model|wireframe]] 3D graphics; however, the Sorcerer's Apprentice added the capability to create and manipulate 3D objects in real-time through the hand tracking device, termed the "wand". Commands to be performed by the 3D wand could be chosen by pointing the wand at a physical wall chart.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Donald Lee |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=705942 |title=Sorcerer's apprentice: head-mounted display and wand |date=July 1974 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref>
==== Character rigging and keyframing ====
An important innovation in computer animation at the University of Utah was the creation of the program "KEYFRAME", which would allow a user to pose and [[Key frame|keyframe]] a [[Character rigging|rigged]] humanoid 3D character, create [[Walk cycle|walk cycles]] and other movements, [[Lip sync|lip-sync]] the character, all using a [[Computer mouse|mouse]]-based [[Graphical user interface|graphical interface]], and then render a shaded animation of the rigged character performing the walk cycle, hand movement, or other animation. This program, as well as one for creating a 3D animation of a football match, were created by Barry Wessler for his 1973 PhD dissertation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wessler |first=Barry David |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=712684 |title=Computer-assisted visual communication |date=July 1973 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref> The capabilities of the "KEYFRAME" program were demonstrated in a short film, ''Not Just Reality'', which featured walk cycles, lip syncing, facial expressions, and further movement of a shaded humanoid 3D character.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0sl72MD6Ycc |title=Not Just Reality |date=2023-03-19 |last=jellyvista |access-date=2025-01-06 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
===Evans and Sutherland===
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