Two-state solution: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 11:55, 16 January 2025

Revision as of 21:13, 16 January 2025

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The first proposal for separate Jewish and Arab states in the territory was made by the British [[Peel Commission]] report in 1937.<ref name=":11">{{Citation |last=Morris |first=Benny |title=The History of One-State and Two-State Solutions |date=2009-04-28 |work=One State, Two States: Resolving the Israel/Palestine Conflict |pages=28–160 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1np7rh.7 |access-date=2024-06-28 |publisher=Yale University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1np7rh.7 |isbn=978-0-300-15604-1}}</ref> In 1947, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted a [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|partition plan for Palestine]], leading to the [[1948 Palestine war]].<ref>{{Citation |title=The 1947 Partition Plan |date=2022 |work=International Law and the Arab-Israeli Conflict |pages=93–101 |editor-last=Sabel |editor-first=Robbie |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/international-law-and-the-arabisraeli-conflict/1947-partition-plan/BF9BEE2E6380D9CEAD0C710C6AC51C63 |access-date=2023-10-31 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108762670.006 |isbn=978-1-108-48684-2}}</ref><ref name="UN2">[https://www.un.org/unispal/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/DPIQoPPub_280220.pdf ''The Question of Palestine and the UN'', "The Jewish Agency accepted the resolution despite its dissatisfaction over such matters as Jewish emigration from Europe and the territorial limits set on the proposed Jewish State."]</ref> As a result, [[Israel]] was established on the area the UN had proposed for the Jewish state, as well as almost 60% of the area proposed for the Arab state. Israel took control of [[West Jerusalem]], which was meant to be part of an international zone. Jordan took control of [[East Jerusalem]] and what became known as the [[West Bank]], [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|annexing it the following year]]. The territory which became the [[Gaza Strip]] was [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|occupied by Egypt]] but never annexed. Since the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], both the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and Gaza Strip have been militarily occupied by Israel, becoming known as the [[Palestinian territories]].

The [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] has accepted the concept of a two-state solution since the 1982 Arab Summit.{{Clarify|reason=This is very vague. Who is “leadership”? When did they accept (“since 1982”, but when is that exactly?)? Which “concept” did they accept (considering that any concrete plan is still non-existent)? What means the addition “in principle”: did they accept, or not? The suggestion that PLO accepted any tss(-principle) is improbable, considering that our article on the PLO does not mention their acceptance of any (real) two-state solution-idea (or ‘principle’). We don’t want Wikipedia to tell its readers unsourced fantasy or sweet fairy tales. So: can we have a real citation from that book (1994) of author Mark Tessler?|date=July 2024}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Mark A. |last=Tessler|title=A History of the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict|publisher=[[Indiana State University]]|___location=Bloomington, Indiana|date=1994|isbn=978-0253208736|page=718}}</ref> In 2017, [[Hamas]] announced their [[2017 Hamas charter|revised charter]], which claims to accept the idea of a Palestinian state within the 1967 borders, but without recognising the statehood of Israel.<ref name="hamas">{{cite news |date=2 May 2017 |title=Hamas accepts Palestinian state with 1967 borders |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/5/2/hamas-accepts-palestinian-state-with-1967-borders |accessdate=3 November 2023 |website=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]]}}</ref> [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|Diplomatic efforts]] have centred around realizing a two-state solution, starting from the failed [[2000 Camp David Summit]] and [[the Clinton Parameters]], followed by the [[Taba Summit]] in 2001. The failure of the Camp David summit to reach an agreed two-state solution formed the backdrop to the commencement of the [[Second Intifada]], the violent consequences of which marked a turning point among both peoples’ attitudes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Palti |first=Zohar |date=2023-09-08 |title=The Implications of the Second Intifada on Israeli Views of Oslo |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/implications-second-intifada-israeli-views-oslo |access-date=2024-04-03 |website=[[Washington Institute for Near East Policy|The Washington Institute]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Background & Overview of 2000 Camp David Summit |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/background-and-overview-of-2000-camp-david-summit |access-date=2024-04-03 |website=[[Jewish Virtual Library]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Second Intifada |url=https://www.makan.org.uk/glossary/second_intifada/ |access-date=2024-04-03 |website=Makan |quote="The Second Intifada starkly demonstrated the failure of years of negotiations, and marked a turning point in both internal Israeli and Palestinian politics."}}</ref> A two-state solution also formed the basis of the [[Arab Peace Initiative]], the [[Realignment plan|2006–2008 peace offer]], and the [[2013–14 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks|2013–14 peace talks]].

Currently there is no two-state solution proposal being negotiated between Israel and Palestinians. The [[Palestinian Authority]] supports the idea of a two-state solution;<ref>{{Cite news |title=Palestinian Authority ready to work with an Israeli government that backs two-state solution: PM Shtayyeh |website=CBC News|date=1 February 2024| accessdate=3 September 2024|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/palestinian-authority-two-state-solution-israeli-government-1.7102024}}</ref> Israel at times has also supported the idea, but nowadays rejects the creation of a Palestinian state.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magid |first=Jacob |title=Knesset overwhelmingly passes motion rejecting Palestinian statehood, days before PM's US trip |website=[[The Times of Israel]] |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/knesset-overwhelmingly-passes-motion-rejecting-palestinian-statehood-days-before-pms-us-trip/ |date=2024-07-18 |access-date=2024-08-18}}</ref> Long-serving Israeli Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu|Netanyahu]] in 2015 rejected a Palestinian state.<ref name="ynet,2015" /> He again rejected a Palestinian state in June 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-01 |title=Palestinians furious over Netanyahu claims that Israel must 'crush' statehood ambitions |url=https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/article-748435 |access-date=2024-07-26 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-26 |title=Netanyahu's call to block creation of Palestinian state sparks fury, condemnation |url=https://arab.news/ju7du |access-date=2024-07-26 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref> Former Israeli PMs [[Ehud Barak]] and [[Ehud Olmert]] in late 2023 expressed support for a two-state solution.<ref name="Barak2023">{{Cite magazine |last=Cortellessa |first=Eric |date=2023-11-06 |title=Former Israeli Prime Minister: Israel's Endgame in Gaza Should be a Palestinian State |url=https://time.com/6332127/israel-palestine-war-ehud-barak/ |access-date=2023-12-21 |magazine=[[TIME]]}}</ref><ref name="Olmert2023" /> Public support among Israelis and among Palestinians (measured separately) for “the concept of the two-state solution” etc. have varied between far above and far below 50%, depending partly on how the question was phrased.

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[[File:Map of Mandatory Palestine in 1946 with major cities (in English).svg|thumb|[[Mandatory Palestine]] in 1946.]]

In the wake of [[Aliyah|Jewish migration]] from Europe in the context of [[Zionism]] and [[Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine|intercommunal conflict]] in [[Mandatory Palestine]], the first proposal for the creation of Jewish and Arab states in the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate of Palestine]] was made by the British [[Peel Commission]] report of 1937 led by [[William Peel, 1st Earl Peel]].<ref name=":10">{{Citation |last=Pappe |first=Ilan |title=Zionism and the two-state solution |date=2007 |work=Where now for Palestine? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350223936.ch-002 |access-date=2024-06-28 |publisher=Zed Books Ltd |doi=10.5040/9781350223936.ch-002 |isbn=978-1-84277-839-5}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> The plan maintained a mandate covering a small area containing [[Jerusalem]] and allotted the poorest lands of Palestine, including the [[Negev Desert]], and areas that are known today as the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]] to the Arabs; while most of the coastline and some of Palestine's most fertile agricultural land in the [[Galilee]] were allotted to the Jews.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LILdBDrm-ksC|title=The Arabs: A History|edition=3rd|first=Eugene|last=Rogan|author-link=Eugene Rogan|page=257|publisher=Penguin|year=2012|isbn=9780718196837}}</ref> Consequently, the recommended partition proposal was rejected by the Arab community of Palestine, and was accepted by most of the Jewish leadership.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ted|last=Swedenburg|date=1988|chapter=The Role of the Palestinian Peasantry in the Great Revolt 1936–1939|title=Islam, Politics, and Social Movements|editor1-first=Edmund III

|editor1-last=Burke|editor2-first=Ira|editor2-last=Lapidus|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|___location=Berkeley, California|isbn=0-520-06868-8|pages=189–94189–194}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Marvin|last1=Gettleman|authorlink1=Marvin Gettleman|first2=Stuart|last2=Schaar|date=2003|title=The Middle East and Islamic World Reader|publisher=[[Grove Press]]|___location=New York City|isbn=0-8021-3936-1|pages=177–81177–181}}</ref><ref name="ilan">{{cite book|first=Pappé|last=Ilan|date=2004|title=A History of Modern Palestine: One Land, Two Peoples|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|___location=Cambridge, England|page=106|isbn=0-521-55632-5}}</ref>

Partition was again proposed by the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]] for the division of Palestine. It proposed a three-way division, again with Jerusalem held separately, under international control. The partition plan was accepted by [[Jewish Agency for Palestine]] and most Zionist factions who viewed it as a stepping stone to territorial expansion at an opportune time.<ref name="Morris2008p75">{{cite book|first=Benny|last=Morris|title=1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ|access-date=24 July 2013|year=2008|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|___location=New Haven, Connecticut|pagespage=75|isbn=978-0-300-12696-9|quote=The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv’s settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/unispal/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/DPIQoPPub_280220.pdf|title=The Question of Palestine and the UN|publisher=[[United Nations]]|___location=Washington, DC|date=2008}}</ref> The [[Arab Higher Committee]], the [[Arab League]] and other Arab leaders and governments rejected it on the basis that Arabs formed a two-thirds majority and owned a majority of the lands.<ref name="Morris2008p66">Benny Morris, ''1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War'', 2008, pp. 66, 67, 72</ref><ref name="ER">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LILdBDrm-ksC&q=eugene+rogan+history+of+arabs|title=The Arabs: A History|edition=Third3rd|first=Eugene|last=Rogan|page=321|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|___location=New York City|date=2012|isbn=978-0-7181-9683-7}}</ref> They also indicated an unwillingness to accept any form of territorial division,<ref name="morris2008p73">Morris, ''1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War'', p. 2008, p. 73</ref> arguing that it violated the principles of [[Self-determination|national self-determination]] in the [[United Nations Charter|UN Charter]].<ref name="UN">[https://www.un.org/unispal/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/DPIQoPPub_280220.pdf ''The Question of Palestine and the UN'']</ref><ref name="ghf_OBksgykC">{{cite book|first=Sami |last=Hadawi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ghf_OBksgykC&pg=PA76|title=Bitter Harvest: A Modern History of Palestine|publisher=Olive Branch Press|___location=Northampton, Massachusetts|date=1991|isbn=9780940793767|page=76}}</ref> They announced their intention to take all necessary measures to prevent the implementation of the resolution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perkins |first1=Kenneth J. |last2=Gilbert |first2=Martin |date=1999 |title=Israel: A History |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/120539 |journal=The Journal of Military History |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=149 |doi=10.2307/120539 |jstor=120539 |issn=0899-3718}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Best |first=Antony |title=International History of the Twentieth Century and Beyond |date=2004 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315739717-1 |pages=531 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |___location=Milton Park, Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, England|doi=10.4324/9781315739717-1 |isbn=978-1-315-73971-7 |access-date=June 29, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=James |last=Rothrock|title=Live by the Sword: Israel's Struggle for Existence in the Holy Land|publisher=WestBow Press|___location=Bloomington, Indiana|date=2011|isbn=9781449725198|page=14}}</ref><ref>Lenczowski, G. (1962). ''The Middle East in World Affairs'' (3rd EditionEd.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 723</ref> Subsequently, the [[Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine|Intercommunal conflict]] in Palestine gave way to [[1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]]<ref name="Britannica2002">Article "History of Palestine", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2002 edition), article section written by [[Walid Khalidi|Walid Ahmed Khalidi]] and Ian J. Bickerton.</ref> and the plan was not implemented.<ref>{{cite book|first=Itzhak|last=Galnoor|title=The Partition of Palestine: Decision Crossroads in the Zionist Movement|publisher=[[State University of New York Press]]|___location=Albany, New York|date=1994|isbn=9781438403724|page=195}}</ref>

[[File:United_Nations_Palestine_map_showing_Armistice_Agreements_between_Israel_&_Lebanon,_Syria,_Jordan_&_Egypt_1949-1950.jpg|thumb|1955 United Nations map showing the borders of Israel according to the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] of the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]].]]

At the end of the British Mandate, with the [[establishment of the State of Israel]] and entry of Arab regular armies into what had been Mandatory Palestine, the [[1948 Palestine war|1948 war]] became an [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|international conflict]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Morris |first=Benny |title=1948: a history of the First Arab-Israeli war |date=2009 |publisher=Yale Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-300-15112-1 |___location=New Haven, Conn.}}</ref> At the end of the war, the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]] established by the [[1949 Armistice Agreements]] became the de facto borders of the State of Israel.<ref name=":12" /> The war resulted in the [[1948 Palestinian exodus|fleeing or expulsion of 711,000 Palestinians]], which the Palestinians call ''[[Nakba]]'', from the territories which became the state of Israel.<ref name="un">{{cite web|author=United Nations General Assembly |date=23 August 1951 |url=https://unispal.un.org/unispal.nsf/b792301807650d6685256cef0073cb80/93037e3b939746de8525610200567883?OpenDocument |title=General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine |format=OpenDocument |access-date=3 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822123836/http://unispal.un.org/unispal.nsf/b792301807650d6685256cef0073cb80/93037e3b939746de8525610200567883?OpenDocument |archive-date=22 August 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref>

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=== Palestinian Declaration of Independence ===

The [[Palestinian Declaration of Independence]] of 15 November 1988, which referenced the [[UN Partition Plan]] of 1947 and "UN resolutions since 1947" in general, was interpreted as an indirect recognition of the [[State of Israel]], and support for a two-state solution. The Partition Plan was invoked to provide legitimacy to Palestinian statehood. Subsequent clarifications were taken to amount to the first explicit Palestinian recognition of Israel.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rabie |first=Mohamed|date=Summer 1992|title=The U.S.-PLO Dialogue: The Swedish Connection |journal= Journal of Palestine Studies|volume=21|issue=4|pages=54–66|doi=10.1525/jps.1992.21.4.00p0140g |jstor=2537663}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Quandt, William B. | author-link = William B. Quandt |title=Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli conflict since 1967 |publisher=Brookings Institution |___location=Washington, DC |year=1993 |pages=367–75367–375, 494 |isbn=0-520-08390-3}}</ref><section end=Post1967 />

===2017 Hamas Charter===

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In December 2022, [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] returned as Prime Minister of Israel, forming the most right-wing government in Israel's history. Netanyahu's coalition partners rejected the two-state solution.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's most right-wing government agreed under Benjamin Netanyahu |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-63942616 |date=21 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's Netanyahu says deal agreed with far-right to form gov't |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/12/22/israels-netanyahu-says-deal-agreed-with-far-right-to-form-govt |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref> In February 2023, Netanyahu said he would be willing to grant Palestinians autonomy but not sovereignty, and in any future deal Israel would maintain full security control of the West Bank.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gold |first1=Hadas |title=Netanyahu outlines vision for two-state solution – without Palestinian sovereignty |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/02/01/middleeast/netanyahu-palestinian-sovereignty-mime-intl/index.html |work=CNN |date=1 February 2023 |language=en}}</ref> In June 2023, Netanyahu told members of the Knesset that Israel must block the creation of a Palestinian state.<ref>{{cite news |title=Netanyahu's call to block creation of Palestinian state sparks fury, condemnation |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2328446/middle-east |work=Arab News |date=26 June 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Palestinians furious over Netanyahu claims that Israel must 'crush' statehood ambitions |url=https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/article-748435 |work=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |date=1 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

Later in 2023, despite Israeli PM Netanyahu's statement denying the creation of a Palestinian state as a condition for a normalization with Saudi Arabia,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kaye |first1=Dalia Dassa |title=The Case Against an Israeli-Saudi Deal |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/case-against-israeli-saudi-deal |work=Foreign Affairs |date=17 August 2023 |quote=In an early August interview with Bloomberg, Netanyahu...called the Palestinian issue no more than a “checkbox” and reiterated his opposition to a Palestinian state.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Israel-Saudi peace can end all hope for Palestinian statehood -– opinion |url=https://www.jpost.com/opinion/article-754207 |work=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |date=10 August 2023 |language=en |quote=To which [Palestinian state] Bibi emphatically says, “No'No, never.”' Many in Israel and elsewhere are confident that the Saudis aren’t really serious about Palestinian statehood and are unwilling to sacrifice their own interests for it.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Netanyahu: Normalisation with Saudi not linked to creation of Palestinian state |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230808-netanyahu-normalisation-with-saudi-not-linked-to-creation-of-palestinian-state/ |publisher=[[Middle East Monitor]] |date=August 8, 2023}}</ref> Saudi Arabian crown prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]] said normalization with Israel was "for the first time real".<ref name="nyt7oct">{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Kingsley |first1=Patrick |last2=Kershner |first2=Isabel |date=7 October 2023 |title=Israel-Gaza Conflict: Gaza and Israel on War Footing After Militants Launch Surprise Assaults |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/10/07/world/israel-gaza-attack |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007075901/https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/10/07/world/israel-gaza-attack |archive-date=7 October 2023 |access-date=7 October 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> This was an apparent reversal of Saudi policy, articulated in the [[2002 Arab Peace Initiative]], when Saudi Arabia had offered Israel normalization with the whole Arab world if Israel allows the creation of a Palestinian state.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ackerman |first1=Spencer |author1-link=Spencer Ackerman |title=A Mideast Deal Signed in Blood |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/world/israel-us-saudi-arabia-deal-palestine-gaza/ |publisher=[[The Nation]] |date=10 October 2023 |quote=It is not lost on anyone, least of all the Palestinians, that in 2002, then–Saudi Crown Prince Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz conditioned recognition for Israel on Palestinian statehood. Now–Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman has removed that condition.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Lawati |first1=Abbas Al |title=Mideast and US leaders tried to sweep the Palestinian issue under the rug. That may not work anymore |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/11/middleeast/israel-palestine-us-saudi-normalization-mime-intl/index.html |work=CNN |publisher=[[CNN News]] |date=11 October 2023 |language=en |quote="[MBS] effectively abandoning a two-decade-old Saudi pledge to only make peace with Israel after it fully withdraws from land it occupies."}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Haq |first1=Sana Noor |title=Netanyahu says Israel nears normalization deal with Saudi Arabia but refuses to outline concessions to Palestinians |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/22/middleeast/israel-benjamin-netanyahu-cnn-interview-intl/index.html |work=CNN |date=22 September 2023 |language=en |quote="[bin Salman] stopped short of calling for the establishment of an independent Palestinian state, which has been Riyadh’s official stance for two decades."}}</ref><ref name=toi_saudi>{{cite news |last1=Magid |first1=Jacob |title=Saudis putting aside Arab Peace Initiative amid Israel normalization talks – officials |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/saudis-putting-aside-arab-peace-initiative-amid-israel-normalization-talks-officials/ |date=26 September 2023}}</ref> Israeli<ref name=toi_saudi/> and other officials involved in the negotiations confirmed that the Saudis were considering normalization with Israel without the creation of a Palestinian state.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nakhoul |first1=Samia |title=Exclusive: US-Saudi defence pact tied to Israel deal, Palestinian demands put aside |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us-saudi-defence-pact-tied-israel-deal-palestinian-demands-put-aside-2023-09-29/ |publisher=[[Reuters]] |date=September 29, 2023}}</ref> Many Palestinians worried that Israeli-Saudi normalization would cost them their last significant leverage for Palestinian statehood.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shehada |first1=Muhammad |title=For the Palestinians, Israeli-Saudi normalization would be disastrous |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2023-08-14/ty-article-opinion/.premium/for-the-palestinians-israeli-saudi-normalization-would-be-disastrous/00000189-f364-d975-a9cf-fb77780c0000 |work=Haaretz |date=14 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

In October 2023, [[Hamas]] launched an attack on Israel. Numerous sources identified the lack of a Palestinian state as a cause of the war.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Matar |first1=Haggai |date=7 October 2023 |title=Gaza's shock attack has terrified Israelis. It should also unveil the context |url=https://www.972mag.com/gaza-attack-context-israelis/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231231181619/https://www.972mag.com/gaza-attack-context-israelis/ |archive-date=31 December 2023 |access-date=31 December 2023 |magazine=[[+972 Magazine]] |publisher=+972 Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Sforza|first1=Lauren|date=9 October 2023|title=Tlaib, Bush criticized by Democrats over statements calling for end to Israel support|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/house/4245770-tlaib-bush-criticized-by-democrats-over-statements-calling-for-end-to-israel-support/|access-date=31 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||title=John Mearsheimer: Israel is choosing 'apartheid' or 'ethnic cleansing'|work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/program/the-bottom-line/2023/12/16/john-mearsheimer-israel-is-choosing-apartheid-or-ethnic-cleansing|access-date=31 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Schenker |first1=Hillel |date=12 October 2023 |title=The Catastrophe of October 7. Why Did It Happen? |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/world/israel-gaza-hamas-war-netanyahu/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231231181618/https://www.thenation.com/article/world/israel-gaza-hamas-war-netanyahu/ |archive-date=31 December 2023 |access-date=31 December 2023 |magazine=[[The Nation]]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Barghouti|first1=Mariam|title=On October 7, Gaza broke out of prison|work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/10/14/on-october-7-gaza-broke-out-of-prison|access-date=31 December 2023}}</ref> The [[Associated Press]] wrote that Palestinians are "in despair over a never-ending occupation in the West Bank and suffocating blockade of Gaza".<ref>{{#invoke:cite news||last1=Federman|first1=Josef|last2=Adwan|first2=Issam|date=7 October 2023|title=Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation|work=[[AP News]]|url=https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2|url-status=live|access-date=4 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007073124/https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2|archive-date=7 October 2023}}</ref> After [[Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip|Netanyahu invaded Gaza]], he once again reiterated his opposition to the existence of a Palestinian state.<ref>{{cite news |title=Netanyahu says he told U.S. that he opposes Palestinian state in any postwar scenario |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/01/19/1225574007/netanyahu-says-he-told-u-s-that-he-opposes-palestinian-state-in-any-postwar-scen}}</ref>

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In 2002, Crown Prince [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia]] (who would go on to be King from 2005 to 2015) proposed the Arab Peace Initiative, which garnered the unanimous support of the [[Arab League]] while Israeli leaders continually refuse to discuss the initiative. President Bush announced his support for a Palestinian state, opening the way for [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1397]], supporting a two-state solution.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Caplan|first1=Neil|title=The Israel–Palestine Conflict: Contested Histories|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1444357868|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JyAgn_dD43cC&q=UNDOC/GEN/N02/283/59/PDF/N0228359.pdf|access-date=29 November 2016|chapter=Camp David Revisited; Intifada Redux}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2020}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=D. Jones|first1=Bruce|title=216|url=https://archive.org/stream/BooksCommunistManifestoEssaysArticlesReports-VariousPdfFiles2/TheWarsOnTerrorismAndIraq-HumanRightsUnilateralismAndUsForeignPolicy_djvu.txt|access-date=29 November 2016}}</ref>

At the [[Annapolis Conference]] in November 2007, three major parties—Theparties{{snd}}The PLO, Israel, and the US—agreedUS{{snd}}agreed on a two-state solution as the outline for negotiations. However, the summit failed to achieve an agreement.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}

Following [[Fatah–Hamas conflict|the conflict]] that erupted between the two main Palestinian parties, [[Fatah]] and [[Hamas]], Hamas [[Battle of Gaza (2007)|took control]] of the Gaza Strip, splintering the Palestinian Authority into two polities, each claiming to be the true representatives of the Palestinian people. Fatah controlled the [[Palestinian National Authority]] in the [[West Bank]] and Hamas [[Governance of the Gaza Strip|Governed in Gaza]].

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According to a 2021 [[Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research|PCPSR]] poll, support for a two-state solution among Palestinians and Israeli Jews, as of 2021, had declined to 43 percent and 42 percent, respectively.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=What Do Palestinians Want? |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/what-do-palestinians-want |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=[[The Washington Institute for Near East Policy]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-26 |title=The Palestine/Israel Pulse, a Joint Poll Summary Report |url=https://www.pcpsr.org/en/node/823 |access-date=2022-08-01 |website=pcpsr.org}}</ref> According to Middle East experts David Pollock and Catherine Cleveland, as of 2021, the majority of Palestinians said they wanted to reclaim all of historic Palestine, including pre-1967 Israel. A one-state solution with equal rights for Arabs and Jews was ranked second.<ref name=":02" />

Some researchers argue that the two-state solution has already been implemented because [[Jordan]], which makes up 78% of the former Mandatory Palestine, was originally created as a state for the Arabs.<ref>{{cite web | first=Stephen |last=Crane |url=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/two-state-solution-but-where/ | title=Two-state solution, but where? |newspaper=[[Times of Israel]]|date=June 25, 2019 |accessdate=November 4, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=October 6, 2022|title=Jordan Is the Reason There Is No Palestinian State and Minorities Are Threatened|first=Jason|last=Shvili|url=https://www.algemeiner.com/2022/10/06/jordan-is-the-reason-there-is-no-palestinian-state-and-minorities-are-threatened/|website=[[The Algemeiner]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=Sidney | last=Zion | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/05/opinion/is-jordan-palestine-of-course.html | title=Opinion &#124; ISIs JORDANJordan Palestine PALESTINE? OFOf Course COURSE.| work=[[The New York Times]] | date=5 October 1982 }}</ref>

In December 2022, support for a two-state solution was 33% among Palestinians, 34% among Israeli Jews, and 60% among [[Arab citizens of Israel|Israeli Arabs]]. 82% of Israeli Jews and 75% of Palestinians believed that the other side would never accept the existence of their independent state.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israeli, Palestinian support for two-state solution declines – poll |url=https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/article-752542 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=29 July 2023}}</ref>

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[[Ehud Barak]], Israel's Prime Minister from 1999 to 2001 and Minister of Defense from 2007 to 2013, told [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] on 6 November 2023 that "The right way is to look to the two-state solution".<ref name="Barak2023" />

Interviewed by [[Ezra Klein]] on 8 December 2023, Nimrod Novik, a member of the executive committee of [[Commanders for Israel's Security|Commanders for Israel’s Security]] (CIS), reiterated the CIS's view that the two-state solution is "the only solution that [...] serves Israel’s security and well-being long-term."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Klein |first=Ezra |date=2023-12-08 |title=Opinion {{!}} A Different Path Israel Could Have Taken —– and Maybe Still Can |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/08/opinion/ezra-klein-podcast-nimrod-novik.html |access-date=2023-12-22 |work=[[The New York Times]] |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

[[Ami Ayalon]], the head of Israel's [[Shin Bet]] internal security service from 1995 to 2000, said on 14 January 2024 in an interview with ''[[The Guardian]]'' that "Israel will not have security until Palestinians have their own state".<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Graham-Harrison |first1=Emma |last2=Kierszenbaum |first2=Quique |date=2024-01-14 |title=Ex-Shin Bet head says Israel should negotiate with jailed intifada leader |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/14/shin-bet-ami-ayalon-calls-on-israel-release-intifada-leader-marwan-barghouti |access-date=2024-01-17 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

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The "[[Jordanian option]]" refers to various proposals aimed at resolving the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] through the involvement of the [[Jordan|Kingdom of Jordan]]. These proposals generally involve Jordan retaking control of parts of the West Bank or establishing a [[federation]] or [[confederation]] with a Palestinian state.

In the 1950s and 1960s, King Hussein of Jordan and his officials promoted the idea that "Jordan is Palestine and Palestine is Jordan," aiming to present Jordanians and Palestinians as one unified people with a shared destiny.{{sfn|Shlaim|2008|p=206}}{{sfn|Sharnoff|2024|p=2}} Following the 1967 Six-Day War, which resulted in Jordan losing the West Bank to Israel, Israeli leaders [[Yigal Allon]] and [[Abba Eban]] presented King Hussein with the [[Allon Plan]], which suggested returning parts of the West Bank to Jordan. However, disagreements over this plan led to a stalemate in negotiations.{{sfn|Shemesh|2010|pp=87, 92–95}} In 1986, PLO Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] and King Hussein of Jordan reached an agreement advocating for a peaceful solution to the conflict based on a Jordanian-Palestinian confederation.{{sfn|Quandt|2005|pp=261–262}} This idea was further explored through the secret [[Peres–Hussein London Agreement]] of April 1987, resulting from covert discussions between Israel and Jordan.{{sfn|Peters|Newman|2015|pp=532}} In 1988, King Hussein renounced Jordan’s claims to the West Bank and Palestinian affairs.{{sfn|Peters|Newman|2015|pp=186}} Despite Jordanian opposition to the confederation idea, leading to limited advocacy from Israeli leaders,<ref name=":13">{{Cite news |last=Rosner |first=Shmuel |date=2018-09-21 |title=Opinion {{!}} Why the 'Jordanian Option' Won't Die |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/21/opinion/israel-peace-plan-jordan-kushner.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> renewed interest in the Jordanian option has emerged as a potential solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ismaik |first=Hasan |date=2024-08-07 |title=Unite Jordan and Palestine—AgainPalestine{{snd}}Again |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/15/jordan-palestine-israel-annex-west-bank-israel-occupation/ |access-date=2024-08-04 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite news |last=Rosner |first=Shmuel |date=2018-09-21 |title=Opinion {{!}} Why the 'Jordanian Option' Won't Die |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/21/opinion/israel-peace-plan-jordan-kushner.html |access-date=2024-08-04 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite news |last=Ben-Ami |first=Shlomo |date=2022-06-09 |title=A Jordanian Future for the West Bank? |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-jordanian-future-for-the-west-bank-11654788175 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref>

=== Dual citizenship ===

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* {{Cite book |last=Quandt |first=William B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Jm0YNKvQsAC&pg=PA261 |title=Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press and University of California Press |year=2005 |isbn=9780520246317 |edition=3rd |___location=Washington, D.C., Berkeley and Los Angeles |pages=261–262 |access-date=26 August 2024}}

* {{Cite book |url=https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Companion-to-the-Israeli-Palestinian-Conflict/Siniver/p/book/9781032249018?srsltid=AfmBOopGWVNEf14__LcSfzP7lIz9YmpO5mWbE94WOdz673A6k29oyX2j |title=Routledge Companion to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-032-24901-8 |editor-last=Siniver |editor-first=Asaf |___location=Abingdon and New York}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Sharnoff |first=Michael |date=2024 |title=Visualizing Palestine in Arab postage stamps: 1948-19671948–1967 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00263206.2024.2314523 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |publisher=Routledge |volume= 60|issue= 6|pages=979–999 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2024.2314523 |access-date=27 August 2024 |via=}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Shemesh |first=Moshe |date=2010 |title=On Two Parallel Tracks—TheTracks{{snd}}The Secret Jordanian-Israeli Talks (July 1967–September 1973) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/isr.2010.15.3.87 |journal=Israel Studies |publisher=Indiana University Press |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=87–120 |doi=10.2979/isr.2010.15.3.87 |jstor=10.2979/isr.2010.15.3.87 |access-date=26 August 2024 |via=JSTOR}}

* {{Cite book |last=Shlaim |first=Avi |url= |title=Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace |publisher=[[Knopf]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4000-4305-7 |___location=New York}}