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→Expanded genetic codes (synthetic biology): wikilinked E. coli; replaced text with abbreviation form (instead of full name) - general audiences might be more familiar with the name "E. coli" than "Escherichia coli". |
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H. Murakami and M. Sisido extended some codons to have four and five bases. [[Steven A. Benner]] constructed a functional 65th (''[[in vivo]]'') codon.<ref name="isbn0-387-22046-1">{{cite book|first=Matthew |last=Simon | name-list-style = vanc | title = Emergent Computation: Emphasizing Bioinformatics|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Uxg51oZNkIsC|page=105}}|date=7 January 2005|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-22046-8|pages=105–106}}</ref>
In 2015 [[Nediljko Budisa|N. Budisa]], [[Dieter Söll|D. Söll]] and co-workers reported the full substitution of all 20,899 [[tryptophan]] residues (UGG codons) with unnatural thienopyrrole-alanine in the genetic code of the bacterium ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hoesl | first1 = M. G. | last2 = Oehm | first2 = S. | last3 = Durkin | first3 = P. | last4 = Darmon | first4 = E. | last5 = Peil | first5 = L. | last6 = Aerni | first6 = H.-R. | last7 = Rappsilber | first7 = J. | author-link7=Juri Rappsilber | last8 = Rinehart | first8 = J. | last9 = Leach | first9 = D. | last10 = Söll | first10 = D. | last11 = Budisa | first11 = N. | year = 2015 | title = Chemical evolution of a bacterial proteome | journal = Angewandte Chemie International Edition | volume = 54 | issue = 34 | pages = 10030–10034 | doi = 10.1002/anie.201502868 | pmc = 4782924 | pmid=26136259 }} NIHMSID: NIHMS711205</ref>
In 2016 the first stable semisynthetic organism was created. It was a (single cell) bacterium with two synthetic bases (called X and Y). The bases survived cell division.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kurzweilai.net/first-stable-semisynthetic-organism-created|title=First stable semisynthetic organism created {{!}} KurzweilAI|date=3 February 2017|website=www.kurzweilai.net|access-date=2017-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang Y, Lamb BM, Feldman AW, Zhou AX, Lavergne T, Li L, Romesberg FE | title = A semisynthetic organism engineered for the stable expansion of the genetic alphabet| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 114 | issue = 6 | pages = 1317–1322 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28115716 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1616443114 | pmc=5307467| bibcode = 2017PNAS..114.1317Z| doi-access = free}}</ref>
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