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[[Microarchitecture]], also known as computer organization, refers to high-level hardware questions such as the design of the CPU, memory, and memory [[interconnect (integrated circuits)|interconnect]].{{sfn|Hennessy |Patterson|2011|p=15}} [[Memory hierarchy]] ensures that the memory quicker to access (and more expensive) is located closer to the CPU, while slower, cheaper memory for large-volume storage is located further away.{{sfn|Wang|2021|p=3}} Memory is typically segregated to separate programs from data and limit an attacker's ability to alter programs.{{sfn|Wang|2021|p=4}} Most computers use [[virtual memory]] to simplify addressing for programs, using the [[operating system]] to map virtual memory to different areas of the finite physical memory.{{sfn|Wang|2021|pp=51-52}}
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Computer processors generate heat, and excessive heat impacts their performance and can harm the components. Many computer chips will automatically throttle their performance to avoid overheating. Computers also typically have mechanisms for dissipating excessive heat, such as air or liquid coolers for the CPU and GPU and heatsinks for other components, such as the [[RAM]]. [[Computer case]]s are also often ventilated to help dissipate heat from the computer.<ref>{{cite web |title=PC Cooling: The Importance of Keeping Your PC Cool |url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/gaming/resources/pc-cooling-the-importance-of-keeping-your-pc-cool.html |website=Intel |access-date=20 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref> [[Data center]]s typically use more sophisticated cooling solutions to keep the operating temperature of the entire center safe. Air-cooled systems are more common in smaller or older data centers, while liquid-cooled immersion (where each computer is surrounded by cooling fluid) and direct-to-chip (where the cooling fluid is directed to each computer chip) can be more expensive but are also more efficient.<ref>{{cite web |title=Data Center Cooling: What are the top concepts you need to know? |url=https://gatewaymechanical.ca/data-center-cooling-what-you-need-to-know/ |website=gatewaymechanical.ca |access-date=20 July 2024 |language=en-CA |date=11 August 2021}}</ref> Most computers are designed to be more powerful than their cooling system, but their sustained operations cannot exceed the capacity of the cooling system.{{sfn|Hennessy |Patterson|2011|p=22}} While performance can be temporarily increased when the computer is not hot ([[overclocking]]),{{sfn|Hennessy |Patterson|2011|p=26}} in order to protect the hardware from excessive heat, the system will automatically reduce performance or shut down the processor if necessary.{{sfn|Hennessy |Patterson|2011|p=22}} Processors also will shut off or enter a low power mode when inactive to reduce heat.{{sfn|Hennessy |Patterson|2011|p=25}} Power delivery as well as heat dissipation are the most challenging aspects of hardware design,{{sfn|Hennessy |Patterson|2011|p=21}} and have been the limiting factor to the development of smaller and faster chips since the early twenty-first century.{{sfn|Hennessy |Patterson|2011|p=25}} Increases in performance require a commensurate increase in energy use and cooling demand.{{sfn|Hennessy |Patterson|2011|p=56}}
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