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* Formal estimation model: The quantification step is based on mechanical processes, e.g., the use of a formula derived from historical data.
* Combination-based estimation: The quantification step is based on a judgmental and mechanical combination of estimates from different sources.
===AI-based estimation===
Recent peer-reviewed studies report that machine-learning and ensemble techniques can now outperform traditional parametric models in software-effort estimation tasks.<ref>Rankovic N. et al. “AI in Software Effort Estimation.” In: '''Recent Advances in Artificial Intelligence in Cost Estimation in Project Management'''. Springer, 2024, pp. 157–174. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-76572-8_4</ref>
Below are examples of estimation approaches within each category.
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