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* Switching to a minority language is very common as a means of expressing solidarity with a social group. The language change signals to the listener that the speaker is from a certain background; if the listener responds with a similar switch, a degree of rapport is established.
* The switch between languages can signal the speaker's attitude towards the listener - friendly, irritated, distant, ironic, jocular and so on. Monolinguals can communicate these effects to some extent by varying the level of formality of their speech; bilinguals can do it by language switching.
Code-switching involves the capacity of bilingual individuals to switch between different languages within a single conversation.<ref name="Gutiérrez-1985">{{Cite journal |last=Gutiérrez |first=John R. |date=September 1985 |title=John Amastae and Lucía Elías-olivares (eds.), Spanish in the United States: Sociolinguistic aspects. Cambridge University Press, 1982. Pp. 434. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language-in-society/article/abs/john-amastae-and-lucia-eliasolivares-eds-spanish-in-the-united-states-sociolinguistic-aspects-cambridge-university-press-1982-pp-434/55E8FBA19137797E11885974D12699E8 |journal=Language in Society |language=en |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=395–398 |doi=10.1017/S0047404500011350 |s2cid=143038065 |issn=1469-8013 |archive-date=2023-05-24 |access-date=2023-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524210651/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language-in-society/article/abs/john-amastae-and-lucia-eliasolivares-eds-spanish-in-the-united-states-sociolinguistic-aspects-cambridge-university-press-1982-pp-434/55E8FBA19137797E11885974D12699E8 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> John Guiteriz notes that it is important to note that code-switching is most commonly observed among bilingual individuals who are highly skilled in both languages and is actually prevalent in numerous bilingual communities, contrary to common beliefs. The patterns of language switching exhibited by the speaker can be influenced by the listener's level of proficiency in the languages or their personal language preferences.<ref name="Gutiérrez-1985" />
== Distinguishing features ==
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Some terms are commonly confused with usage when discussing code-switching. Sometimes they are used interchangeably as there is not a fixed and definitive definition of code-switching in the field. Below are some commonly considered definitions by scholars in the field of these terms easily confused with code-switching, highlighting the differences between them and code-switching.
Code-meshing is considered to be the combination or variation of one language with other linguistic aspects of the same language, like linguistic traditions, or simply with other languages. Whereas code-switching can indicate one language having higher recognition over another in certain settings, resulting in the latter being transmitted into the former or even being switched out for the former,<ref name="Young-2009">{{Cite journal |last=Young |first=Vershawn Ashanti |date=2009 |title="Nah, We Straight": An Argument Against Code Switching |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20866886 |journal=JAC |volume=29 |issue=1/2 |pages=49–76 |jstor=20866886 |issn=2162-5190}}</ref> code-meshing may indicate the achievement of a relative linguistic equality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Henderson Lee |first=Sarah |date=September 2014 |title=Code-Meshing as World English: Pedagogy, Policy, Practice VershawnAshanti Young & Aja Y.Martinez (Eds.). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 2011. |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tesj.163 |journal=TESOL Journal |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=551–554 |doi=10.1002/tesj.163 |archive-date=2023-03-13 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313114750/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tesj.163 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The resulting product of code-meshing turns out to be more of an integration or system of language,<ref name="Young-2009" /> instead of having the different components of the product separated or segregated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Horner |first1=Bruce |last2=Alvarez |first2=Sara |date=2019-11-01 |title=Defining Translinguality |url=https://ir.library.louisville.edu/faculty/451 |journal=Faculty Scholarship |archive-date=2023-03-20 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320131225/https://ir.library.louisville.edu/faculty/451/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Therefore, it even avoids some issues regarding racism and promotes rhetoric effectiveness compared to code-switching.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https://uwc.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/Code-Switching-and-Code-Meshing.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |title=Code-Switching and Code-Meshing |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=view.officeapps.live.com |archive-date=2023-03-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313114748/https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https://uwc.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/Code-Switching-and-Code-Meshing.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK |url-status=live }}</ref>
Translingual or [[translanguaging]] may have come in the form of a combination of language usage with nonlinguistic elements.<ref name="Ilkowski-2018">{{Cite web |last=Ilkowski |first=Kimberly |date=2018-05-09 |title=Translanguaging and Code-Switching: what's the difference? |url=https://blog.oup.com/2018/05/translanguaging-code-switching-difference/ |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=OUPblog |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313114753/https://blog.oup.com/2018/05/translanguaging-code-switching-difference/ |archive-date=2023-03-13 |url-status=live |df=ymd-all}}</ref> For example, people can use multiple different languages plus drawing symbol or small images to express one message or idea by putting them together on a surface.<ref name="Ilkowski-2018" /> When compared to code-switching, it has a more common or fixed purpose of making sense or conveying meanings.<ref name="Ilkowski-2018" /> Some scholars use the term translingualism to broadly describe the behavior of combining different languages together without prescriptive definition and articulation.<ref name="University Press of Colorado-2017">{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1r6b08q |title=Crossing Divides: Exploring Translingual Writing Pedagogies and Programs |date=2017 |publisher=University Press of Colorado |jstor=j.ctt1r6b08q |isbn=978-1-60732-619-9 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322060832/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1r6b08q |url-status=live }}</ref> Specifically, they consider translingualism to be highly the usage of multiple language in writing and divide it into translingual work, translingual negotiation and translingual rhetoric for discussion and research study purpose.<ref name="University Press of Colorado-2017" />
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A {{em|portmanteau sentence}} is a particular type of intrasentential code-switching. It is a hybrid involving structures from two different languages in one sentence<ref name="Azuma-1990" />{{rp|199}} in which an item in one language is used as a bridge between portions of the sentence in languages which have differing [[word order|word order typologies]].<ref name="Azuma-1990">{{cite book |editor1-last=Hoji |editor1-first=Hajime |editor2-last=Clancy |editor2-first=Patricia |last1=Azuma |first1=Shoji |title=Japanese/Korean Linguistics: Volume 2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5tVDKFqZscC&pg=PA193 |year=1990 |publisher=Center for the Study of Language (CSLI) |isbn=978-1-881526-14-8 |chapter=Word Order vs. Word Class: Portmanteau Sentences in Bilinguals}}</ref>{{rp|193–194}} It is more of a "syntactic blend" than the kind of lexical blend one sees in [[portmanteau word]]s such as ''smog''.<ref name="Chan-2015">{{cite journal |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |last=Chan |first=Brian Hok-Shing |title=Portmanteau Constructions, Phrase Structure, and Linearization |issn=1664-1078 |volume=6 |date=21 December 2015 |page=1851 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01851 |pmid=26733894 |pmc=4685654 |quote=The term "portmanteau" is supposed to refer to "blends" originally (e.g., "smog" that is blended from "smoke" and "fog"). Portmanteau constructions in code-switching obviously do not refer to such lexical blends but they are more like "syntactic blends" (e.g., SVOV is blended from SVO and SOV).|doi-access=free }}; anthologized in: {{cite book |editor1-last=Alexiadou |editor1-first=Artemis |editor2-last=Lohndal |editor2-first=Terje |title=The Grammar of Multilingualism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8G0DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 |date=31 October 2016 |publisher=Frontiers Media SA |isbn=978-2-88945-012-1 |page=99}}</ref>
Almedia Jacqueleline Toribio's study aims to answer a fundamental question: How do second language learners acquire the necessary knowledge to maintain structural coherence and make well-formedness judgments when using code-switched forms?<ref name="Toribio-2001">{{Cite journal |last=Toribio |first=Almeida Jacqueline |date=December 2001 |title=On the emergence of bilingual code-switching competence |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/abs/on-the-emergence-of-bilingual-codeswitching-competence/6C7726B73B05E63F2F9F304F027FBD48 |journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |language=en |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=203–231 |doi=10.1017/S1366728901000414 |s2cid=35047499 |issn=1469-1841|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The study reveals that there are two main beneficial aspects of code-switching. Both developmental patterns contribute to assessing methodological linguisitic constructs. Toribio offers an illustration of intrasentential code-switching, showcasing consistent grammatical patterns. Proficient bilingual individuals, equipped with advanced proficiency in both languages, engage in intra-sentential code alternations.<ref name="Toribio-2001" />
=== 'Intrasentential' code-switching vs. 'Insertional' code-switching ===
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=== Applications in language learning process ===
The application of code-switching under such a condition can be divided into two main different situations: one is the interaction between learners and the educator, and the other is the communication between students and classmates.<ref name="Hancock"/> Linguists and educators have different opinions and views toward the use of code-switching under different situations in language teaching, so the two situations will be discussed separately. Assuming that both learners and language teachers have the same native language background, which means that everyone can use their same native language to build normal communication. In addition, the situation of foreign teachers (whose native language is the target language), and students from diverse backgrounds (each student has a different native language) are not included.<ref name=Cahyani>{{cite journal|last1=Cahyani|first1=Hilda|first2=Michele|last2=de Courcy|first3=Jenny|last3=Barnett|title=Teachers' Code-Switching in Bilingual Classrooms: Exploring Pedagogical and Sociocultural Functions|journal=International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism|volume=21|year=2018|issue=4 |pages=465–479|doi=10.1080/13670050.2016.1189509 |s2cid=147719529 |url=https://unisa.alma.exlibrisgroup.com/view/delivery/61USOUTHAUS_INST/12142960180001831|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
According to Grace Cornell Gonzales and Emily Machado, many teachers adapt their teaching styles to code-switching because they believe that it allows students to feel as if they are maintaining their full identity.<ref name="Cornell Gonzales">Cornell Gonzales, Grace. Machado, Emily. "Taking the Leap: Supporting Multilingual Writers Through Translanguaging." ''The Reading Teacher''. Vol. 75, no.6, 2022. pp. 685–692.</ref> Some educators allow students to code-switch when talking or writing. This strategy has been seen to be effective because it allows students to communicate their experiences just how they felt them happen.<ref name="Cornell Gonzales" /> In some cases, some teachers will participate in code-switching when interacting with students because it allows students to feel more comfortable. According to Barbara Mellix, code-switching also allows students to feel more confident and secure with their languages and writing because they see that code-switching is acceptable in certain instances.<ref name="Mellix">Mellix, Barbara. "From Outside, In." ''The Georgia Review''. Vol. 41, no.2, 1987. pp. 258–267. {{JSTOR|41399284}}</ref> Although code-switching can become difficult to control, it has been said that speaking and writing go hand in hand: if a person can write, then they can speak and control their switch in the same or similar way.<ref name="Mellix" /> According to Ena Lee and Steve Marshall, the process of code-switching in a classroom also allows for a "greater access" to knowledge.<ref name="Lee-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Ena |last2=Marshall |first2=Steve |title=Multilingualism and English language usage in 'weird' and 'funny' times: a case study of transnational youth in Vancouver |journal=International Journal of Multilingualism |date=February 2012 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=65–82 |doi=10.1080/14790718.2011.595795|s2cid=145753530 }}</ref> It is important to note that code-switching occurs more often with those whose dominant language is not standard English.<ref name="García-2018">{{cite journal |last1=García |first1=Paula B. |last2=Leibold |first2=Lori |last3=Buss |first3=Emily |last4=Calandruccio |first4=Lauren |last5=Rodriguez |first5=Barbara |title=Code-Switching in Highly Proficient Spanish/English Bilingual Adults: Impact on Masked Word Recognition |journal=Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research |date=19 September 2018 |volume=61 |issue=9 |pages=2353–2363 |doi=10.1044/2018_JSLHR-H-17-0399 |pmid=30076419 |pmc=6195050}}</ref><ref name="Mellix" />
Code switching involves utilizing entire sentences, phrases, and borrowed vocabulary from a different language. It is a prevalent linguistic occurrence observed among individuals who are bilingual. To proficiently engage in code switching, students need to possess a substantial comprehension of both cultures, along with a profound understanding of the fundamental structures and functions of language systems. Contrary to the conventional notion of code switching representing a disadvantaged and partially literate upbringing, it actually signifies an intellectual advantage.<ref name="Hughes-2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Claire E. |last2=Shaunessy |first2=Elizabeth S. |last3=Brice |first3=Alejandro R. |last4=Ratliff |first4=Mary Anne |last5=McHatton |first5=Patricia Alvarez |date=September 2006 |title=Code Switching among Bilingual and Limited English Proficient Students: Possible Indicators of Giftedness |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/016235320603000102 |journal=Journal for the Education of the Gifted |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=7–28 |doi=10.1177/016235320603000102 |s2cid=142565671 |issn=0162-3532 |archive-date=2023-05-25 |access-date=2023-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525203018/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/016235320603000102 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Nevertheless, code switching has typically not been regarded as a favorable attribute by educational institutions, teachers, or the dominant culture.<ref name="Hughes-2006" /> The methods employed for assessing and identifying giftedness have traditionally focused on a single language or relied on criteria and behaviors that align with the values and norms of the majority culture.<ref name="Hughes-2006" />
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Code-switching can pressure students to conform to one language over another.<ref name="Goldstein-2005" /> For some students it can lead to a feeling of disconnection to their own culture, and that those students are betraying their culture by learning English over their mother tongue. Being a non-native speaker in a foreign country can lead to total isolation due to the inability to communicate. There is this sense of feeling lost and many feel the need to hide their cultural identity.<ref name="Weinreich" /> Many educators have argued that in a classroom, all cultures should be celebrated and students should feel like they are fully accepted and valued for who they are.<ref name="Goldstein-2005" />
Code-switching is very common in classrooms of multiple languages for many different purposes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Nhan Trong |last2=Grainger |first2=Peter |last3=Carey |first3=Michael |date=2016-07-01 |title=Code-switching in English language education: Voices from Vietnam |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=17992591&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA461970608&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |journal=Theory and Practice in Language Studies |language=English |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=1333–1341 |doi=10.17507/tpls.0607.01 |s2cid=53352987 |archive-date=2024-03-10 |access-date=2024-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310063312/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=LitRC&sw=w&issn=17992591&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA461970608&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
== Code-switching in remote settings ==
Code-switching in remote settings has become higher on the writing agenda due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Remote settings have taken the likes of social media, emails, and any other setting where communication has been made via online platforms. A study done by Cambridge University looked into how code-switching is present on remote, online platforms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Feldman |first1=Laurie Beth |last2=Srinivasan |first2=Vidhushini |last3=Fernandes |first3=Rachel B. |last4=Shaikh |first4=Samira |date=August 2021 |title=Insights into codeswitching from online communication: Effects of language preference and conditions arising from vocabulary richness |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/abs/insights-into-codeswitching-from-online-communication-effects-of-language-preference-and-conditions-arising-from-vocabulary-richness/43C659A65569D4FF471429B7DD1D9ADD |journal=Bilingualism: Language and Cognition |language=en |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=791–797 |doi=10.1017/S1366728921000122 |s2cid=234814224 |issn=1366-7289 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |access-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322070313/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition/article/abs/insights-into-codeswitching-from-online-communication-effects-of-language-preference-and-conditions-arising-from-vocabulary-richness/43C659A65569D4FF471429B7DD1D9ADD |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Looking at tweets from Twitter regarding [[Hurricane Irma]], researchers looked to see how posting went hand in hand with the impacted English and Spanish speaking countries. They found that many utilized English due to the platform's systemic influences. However, translations were prevalent in tweets to make them accessible to both English and Spanish speakers. To understand the relationship between how often people code-switched, the researchers calculated the proportion of code-switches of prior and current Tweets. The results of the study found that language switching produces Tweets that are better at conveying messages the individual wished to put across. Likewise, they found that multilingual individuals differed their code switches based on the language used in their previous Tweets. Due to the difficulty to use multiple languages in the same sentence in writing, more messages were English than in Spanish. Finally, when comparing non-code switching Tweets by the same writer, those with code-switching present had more complex language. This study is only one of potentially many studies to be done. Writing studies has much more to dissect about remote code-switching. Potential research could look into Zoom etiquette, Discord forums, etc.
== Theories ==
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[[Shana Poplack]]'s model of code-switching is an influential theory of the grammar of code-switching.<ref name="Winford" /> In this model, code-switching is subject to two constraints. The ''free-morpheme constraint'' stipulates that code-switching cannot occur between a lexical stem and bound morphemes. Essentially, this constraint distinguishes code-switching from borrowing. Generally, borrowing occurs in the lexicon, while code-switching occurs at either the syntax level or the utterance-construction level.<ref name="Gumperz" /><ref name="Poplack 1984 99–136"/><ref name="Muysken 1995 177–98"/> The ''equivalence constraint'' predicts that switches occur only at points where the surface structures of the languages coincide, or between sentence elements that are normally ordered in the same way by each individual grammar.<ref name="Winford" /> For example, the sentence: "I like you ''porque eres simpático''" ("I like you ''because you are friendly''") is allowed because it obeys the syntactic rules of both Spanish and English.<ref name="SanPop1981">{{Cite journal |last=Sankoff |first=David |author2=Shana Poplack |year=1981 |title=A formal grammar for code-switching |journal=Papers in Linguistics |volume=14 |pages=3–45 |issue=1–4 |doi=10.1080/08351818109370523|citeseerx=10.1.1.667.3175 }}</ref> On the contrary, cases like the noun phrases ''the casa white'' and ''the blanca house'' are ruled out because the combinations are ungrammatical in at least one of the languages involved. Spanish noun phrases are made up of determiners, then nouns, then adjectives, while the adjectives come before the nouns in English noun phrases. ''The casa white'' is ruled out by the equivalence constraint because it does not obey the syntactic rules of English, and ''the blanca house'' is ruled out because it does not follow the syntactic rules of Spanish.<ref name="Winford" />
Moreover, some observations on Sankoff and Poplack's model were later pointed out by outside researchers. The observations regard that free-morpheme and equivalence constraints are insufficiently restrictive, meaning there are numerous exceptions that occur. For example, the free morpheme constraint does not account for why switching is impossible between certain free morphemes. The sentence: "The students had ''visto la película italiana''" ("The students had ''seen the Italian movie''") does not occur in Spanish-English code-switching, yet the free-morpheme constraint would seem to posit that it can.<ref name="Belazi">{{Cite journal |last=Belazi |first=Heidi |author2=Edward Rubin |author3=Almeida Jacqueline Toribio |year=1994 |title=Code switching and X-Bar theory: The functional head constraint |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=25 |pages=221–37 |issue=2|jstor=4178859|s2cid=27756266}}</ref> The equivalence constraint would also rule out switches that occur commonly in languages, as when Hindi postpositional phrases are switched with English prepositional phrases like in the sentence: "John gave a book ''ek larakii ko''" ("John gave a book ''to a girl''"). The phrase ''ek larakii ko'' is literally translated as ''a girl to'', making it ungrammatical in English, and yet this is a sentence that occurs in English-Hindi code-switching despite the requirements of the equivalence constraint.<ref name="Winford" /> Sankoff and Poplack's model focuses on the instances where code-switching does not interfere with the syntactic rule of the speaker's primary or second language.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martínez |first=Ramón Antonio |date=2010 |title="Spanglish" as Literacy Tool: Toward an Understanding of the Potential Role of Spanish-English Code-Switching in the Development of Academic Literacy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40997087 |journal=Research in the Teaching of English |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=124–149 |doi=10.58680/rte201012743 |jstor=40997087 |s2cid=146311514 |issn=0034-527X |archive-date=2023-03-13 |access-date=2023-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313070617/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40997087 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although the model has been challenged with counter-examples collected by other researchers, there is a conclusion that most agree on. The conclusion is that the practice of code-switching demonstrates grammatical proficiency of an equivalent level as a monolingual speaker's speech competence, unlike the claims that code-switching reflects incompetence in either of the two languages of a bilingual speaker.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Woolford |first=Ellen |date=1983 |title=Bilingual Code-Switching and Syntactic Theory |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4178342 |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=520–536 |jstor=4178342 |issn=0024-3892 |archive-date=2018-08-09 |access-date=2018-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809123403/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4178342 |url-status=live }}</ref>
====Matrix language-frame model====
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