Content deleted Content added
Mundanemetal (talk | contribs) m forgot a period |
m Open access bot: url-access updated in citation with #oabot. |
||
Line 10:
===Familiarity===
A stimulus will have a higher [[Recollection|recall]] value if it is highly compatible with preexisting semantic structures (Craik, 1972). According to [[semantic network]] theories, this is because such a stimulus will have many connections to other encoded memories, which are activated based on closeness in semantic network structure.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03210735 |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |last=Rhodes |first=MG |author2=Anastasi JS |title=The effects of a levels-of-processing manipulation on false recall |year=2000 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=158–62 |pmid=10780030 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This activation increases cognitive analysis, increasing the strength of the memory representation. The familiarity modifier has been tested in [[implicit memory]] experiments, where subjects report false memories when presented with related stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Toth |first=JP |year=1996 |title=Conceptual automaticity in recognition memory: Levels-of-processing effects on familiarity |journal=Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1196-1961.50.1.123 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pmid=8653094 |pages=123–38 |doi=10.1037/1196-1961.50.1.123 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124111249/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3690/is_199603/ai_n8735087 |archive-date=2008-01-24 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
===Specificity of processing===
Line 18:
Levels of processing have been an integral part of learning about memory. The self-reference effect describes the greater recall capacity for a particular stimulus if it is related semantically to the subject. This can be thought of as a corollary of the familiarity modifier, because stimuli specifically related to an event in a person's life will have widespread activation in that person's semantic network.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 121| issue = 3| pages = 371–394| last = Symons| first = CS|author2=Thompson BT | title = The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis | pmid = 9136641 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | year = 1997
| url = http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=chip_docs
| doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.371 | format = pdf | url-access = subscription}}</ref> For example, the recall value of a personality trait adjective is higher when subjects are asked whether the trait adjective applies to them than when asked whether trait adjective has a meaning similar to another trait.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 14| issue = 5| pages = 785–794| last = Kelley| first = WM |author2=Macrae CN |author3=Wyland CL |author4=Caglar S |author5=Inati S |author6= Heatherton TF | title = Finding the Self? An Event-Related fMRI Study | pmid = 12167262 | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience| year = 2002| doi = 10.1162/08989290260138672| citeseerx = 10.1.1.522.2494| s2cid = 2917200}}</ref>
===Implicit memory and levels-of-processing===
Implicit memory tests, in contrast with explicit memory tests, measure the recall value of a particular stimulus based on later performance on stimulus-related tasks. During these tasks, the subject does not explicitly recall the stimulus, but the previous stimulus still affects performance.<ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 45 | pages = 1043–1056 | last = Roediger | first = HL | title = Implicit memory: Retention without remembering | journal = American Psychologist | year = 1990 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.45.9.1043 | pmid = 2221571 | issue = 9 }}</ref> For example, in a word-completion implicit memory task, if a subject reads a list containing the word "dog", the subject provides this word more readily when asked for three-letter words beginning in "d". The levels-of-processing effect is only found for explicit memory tests. One study found that word completion tasks were unaffected by levels of semantic encodings achieved using three words with various levels of meaning in common.<ref>{{Cite journal | issn = 0002-9556 | volume = 102 | issue = 2 | pages = 151–181 | last = Schacter | first = DL |author2=McGlynn SM | title = Implicit memory: Effects of elaboration depend on unitization | journal = The American Journal of Psychology | year = 1989 | doi = 10.2307/1422950 | jstor = 1422950 | s2cid = 31679776 }}</ref> Another found that typical level-of-processing effects are reversed in word completion tasks; subjects recalled pictures pairs more completely if they were shown a word representing a picture rather than asked to rate a picture for pleasantness (semantic encoding).<ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 1251–1269 | last = Roediger | first = HL |author2=Stadler ML |author3=Weldon MS |author4=Riegler GL | title = Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: word fragment and word stem completion | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | year = 1992 | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.18.6.1251 | pmid = 1447550 }}</ref> Typical level-of-processing theory would predict that picture encodings would create deeper processing than lexical encoding.
"Memory over the short term and the long term has been thought to differ in many ways in terms of capacity, the underlying neural substrates, and the types of processes that support performance."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rose | first1 = N. S. | last2 = Craik | first2 = F. M. | year = 2012 | title = A processing approach to the working memory/long-term memory distinction: Evidence from the levels-of-processing span task | url = https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/etd/300| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | volume = 38 | issue = 4| pages = 1019–1029 | doi = 10.1037/a0026976 | pmid = 22268911 | url-access = subscription }}</ref>
====Long-term memory====
Line 77:
===Autism===
In autistic patients, levels-of-processing effects are reversed in that semantically presented stimuli have a lower recall value than physically presented stimuli. In one study, [[phonological]] and [[orthography|orthographic]] processing created higher recall value in word list-recall tests.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 40| issue = 7| pages = 964–969| last = Toichi| first = M |author2=Kamio Y | title = Long-term memory and levels-of-processing in autism| journal = Neuropsychologia | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00163-4| pmid = 11900748 | s2cid = 37972435}}</ref> Other studies have explicitly found non-semantically processed stimuli to be more accurately processed by autistic patients than in non-autistic patients.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1093/brain/awh561| volume = 128| issue = 10| pages = 2430–2441| last = Bertone| first = A |author2=Mottron L |author3=Jelenic P |author4=Faubert J | title = Enhanced and diminished visuo-spatial information processing in autism depends on stimulus complexity| journal = Brain | date = 2005-10-01| url = http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/128/10/2430| format = abstract| pmid = 15958508| doi-access = | url-access = subscription}}</ref> No clear conclusions have been drawn as to the cause of this oddity.
==References==
| |||