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A shaded 3D computer animation of a colored [[Soma cube]] exploding into pieces was created at the University of Utah as part of Gordon Romney's 1969 PhD dissertation, along with shaded renderings of 3D text, 3D graphs, trucks, ships, and buildings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gordon W. Romney |url=https://archive.org/details/computerassisted0000unse_p7o2 |title=Computer Assisted Assembly and Rendering of Solids |date=August 1969 |publisher=University of Utah, Computer Science Dept. |others=Internet Archive}}</ref> This paper also coined the term "rendering" in reference to computer drawings of 3D objects. Another 3D shading algorithm was implemented by [[John Warnock]] for his 1969 dissertation.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Warnock |first=John Edward |title=A hidden surface algorithm for computer generated halftone pictures |date=June 1969 |degree=PhD |publisher=The University of Utah |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/book/10.5555/905316 |doi=}}</ref>
[[File:1970 Church Rendering by Watkins at Univ of Utah.png|thumb|A color image of a church generated by the Watkins algorithm at the University of Utah in 1970.]]
A truly real-time shading algorithm was developed by Gary Watkins for his 1970 PhD dissertation, and was the basis of the [[Gouraud shading]] technique, developed the following year.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Watkins |first=Gary |url=https://bitsavers.org/pdf/univOfUtah/UTECH-CSc-70-101_Watkins_Dissertation_Jun70.pdf |title=A real-time visible surface algorithm |date=June 1970 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Gouraud |first=Henri |title=Computer display of curved surfaces |date=1971 |degree=PhD |publisher=The University of Utah |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/book/10.5555/905323 |doi=}}</ref> Robert Mahl's 1970 dissertation at the University of Utah described smooth shading of [[
Further innovations in shaded 3D graphics at the University of Utah included a more realistic shading technique by [[Bui Tuong Phong]] for his dissertation in 1973 and texture mapping by [[Edwin Catmull]] for his 1974 dissertation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Phong |first=Bui Tuong |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=712686 |title=Illimunation of computer generated images |date=July 1973 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Catmull |first=Edwin Earl |url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/details?id=2111909 |title=A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces |date=December 1974 |publisher=The University of Utah}}</ref>
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==== Character rigging and keyframing ====
An important innovation in computer animation at the University of Utah was the creation of the program "KEYFRAME", which would allow a user to pose and [[Key frame|keyframe]] a [[Character rigging|rigged]] humanoid 3D character, create [[
===Evans and Sutherland===
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===National Film Board of Canada===
The [[National Film Board of Canada]], already a world center for animation art, also began experimentation with computer techniques in 1969.<ref>"Retired NRC Scientists Burtnyk and Wein honoured as Fathers of Computer Animation Technology in Canada". ''Sphere'' (National Research Council of Canada) 4. 1996. (Retrieved April 20, 2011).</ref> Most well-known of the early pioneers with this was artist [[Peter Foldes]], who completed ''Metadata'' in 1971. This film comprised drawings animated by gradually changing from one image to the next, a technique known as "interpolating" (also known as "inbetweening" or "morphing"), which also featured in a number of earlier art examples during the 1960s.<ref name="NFBC-NRC">From [http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/tree/nfbc.html "The Film Animator Today: Artists Without A Canvas"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402221929/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/tree/nfbc.html |date=April 2, 2012 }} (retrieved April 22, 2012)</ref> In 1974, Foldes completed ''[[Hunger (1974 film)|Hunger / La Faim]]'', which was one of the first films to show solid filled (raster scanned) rendering, and was awarded the Jury Prize in the short film category at [[1974 Cannes Film Festival]], as well as an Academy Award nomination. Foldes and the National Film Board of Canada employed pioneering keyframe computer technology developed at the [[National Research Council Canada|National Research Council]] of Canada (NRC) by scientist Nestor Burtnyk in 1969. Burtnyk and his collaborator Marceli Wein received the Academy Award in 1997 in recognition of their role in the field.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Deachman |first=Bruce |date=August 31, 2018 |title=And the Oscar goes to...: Ottawa scientists were pioneers in animation technology |url=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/local-news/and-the-oscar-goes-to-ottawa-scientists-were-pioneers-in-animation-technology |access-date=April 20, 2025 |work=Ottawa Citizen}}</ref> The NRC team also contributed high-profile animation sequences to the celebrated BBC documentary series The Ascent of Man (1973).
===Atlas Computer Laboratory and Antics===
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* [[Wavefront Technologies|Wavefront]] followed the success of ''Personal Visualiser'' with the release of ''Dynamation'' in 1992, a powerful tool for interactively creating and modifying realistic, natural images of dynamic events. In 1993, Wavefront acquired Thomson Digital Images (TDI), with their innovative product ''Explore'', a tool suite that included ''3Design'' for modelling, ''Anim'' for animation, and ''Interactive Photorealistic Renderer'' (IPR) for rendering. In 1995, Wavefront was bought by [[Silicon Graphics]], and merged with [[Alias Systems Corporation|Alias]].<ref>[http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#wavefront "Commercial animation software companies – Wavefront"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618212520/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#wavefront |date=June 18, 2014 }}, Wayne Carlson, Ohio State University (retrieved September 3, 2012).</ref>
* [[Alias Systems Corporation|Alias Research]] continued the success of ''[[PowerAnimator]]'' with movies like ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'', ''[[Batman Returns]]'' and ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'', and in 1993 started the development of a new entertainment software, which was later to be named ''[[Autodesk Maya|Maya]]''. Alias found customers in animated film, TV series, visual effects, and video games, and included many prominent studios, such as [[Industrial Light & Magic]], [[Pixar]], [[Sony Pictures Imageworks]], [[Walt Disney]], and [[Warner Bros.]]
* [[Alias Systems Corporation|Alias Wavefront]]'s new mission was to focus on developing the world's most advanced tools for the creation of digital content. ''[[PowerAnimator]]'' continued to be used for visual effects and movies (such as ''[[Toy Story]]'', ''[[Casper (film)|Casper]]'', and ''[[Batman Forever]]''), and also for video games. Further development of the ''Maya'' software went ahead, adding new features such as motion-capture, facial animation, motion blur, and "time warp" technology. [[Computer-aided design|CAD]] industrial design products like ''[[Autodesk AliasStudio|AliasStudio]]'' and ''Alias Designer'' became standardized on Alias|Wavefront software. In 1998, Alias|Wavefront launched ''[[Autodesk Maya|Maya]]'' as its new 3-D flagship product, and this soon became the industry's most important animation tool. ''Maya'' was the merger of three packages—Wavefront's ''Advanced Visualizer'', Alias's ''Power Animator'', and TDI's ''Explore''. In 2003 the company was renamed simply "Alias". In 2004, SGI sold the business to a private investment firm, and it was later renamed to [[Alias Systems Corporation]]. In 2006, the company was bought by [[Autodesk]].<ref>[http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#aw "Commercial animation software companies – Alias|Wavefront"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618212520/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#aw |date=June 18, 2014 }}, Wayne Carlson, Ohio State University (retrieved September 3, 2012).</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040622205615/http://www.aliaswavefront.com/eng/about/history/index.shtml "About Alias"] at ''Wayback Machine'' (retrieved September 3, 2012).</ref>
* [[Softimage (company)|Softimage]] developed further features for ''Creative Environment'', including the ''Actor Module'' (1991) and ''Eddie'' (1992), including tools such as inverse kinematics, enveloping, metaclay, flock animation, and many others. Softimage customers include many prominent production companies, and Softimage has been used to create animation for hundreds of major feature films and games. In 1994, [[Microsoft]] acquired Softimage, and renamed the package ''[[Softimage 3D]]'', releasing a [[Windows NT]] port two years later.<ref>[http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/1996/jan96/3danimpr.mspx "3D – press release"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229141042/http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/1996/jan96/3danimpr.mspx |date=December 29, 2011 }}, ''Microsoft'', 1996-1 (retrieved July 7, 2012).</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/15/business/company-news-an-acquisition-by-microsoft.html "COMPANY NEWS; An Acquisition By Microsoft"], ''The New York Times'', February 15, 1994 (retrieved July 7, 2012).</ref> In 1998, after helping to port the products to Windows and financing the development of ''[[Autodesk Softimage|Softimage]]'' and ''Softimage|DS'', Microsoft sold the Softimage unit to [[Avid Technology]], who was looking to expand its visual effect capabilities. Then, in 2008, Autodesk acquired the brand and the animation assets of Softimage from Avid, thereby ending Softimage Co. as a distinct entity. The video-related assets of Softimage, including ''Softimage|DS'' (now ''Avid|DS'') continue to be owned by Avid.<ref>[http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=35215 "Pr Newswire Uk: Avid Technology To Acquire Softimage Subsidiary Of Microsoft Corporation"], ''Prnewswire.co.uk'' (retrieved July 7, 2012).</ref><ref>[http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#softimage "Commercial animation software companies – Softimage"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618212520/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#softimage |date=June 18, 2014 }}, Wayne Carlson, Ohio State University (retrieved September 3, 2012).</ref>
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* [[Poser (software)|Poser]] is another DIY 3-D graphics program especially aimed at user-friendly animation of [[wikt:soft|soft]] objects
* [[Pointstream Software]] is a professional [[optical flow]] program that uses a [[pixel]] as its basic primitive form usually tracked over a [[multi-camera setup]] from the esteemed [[Arius3D]], makers of the [[Cartesian coordinate system|XYZ]] [[RGB]] [[3D scanner|scanner]], used in the production process of the Matrix sequels
* [[Adobe Substance]] is a software that allows artists to create 3-D assets, models, materials, patterns, and [https://discover.therookies.co/2023/05/02/40-mind-blowing-digital-art-projects-created-with-adobe-substance-designer/ lighting].
==CGI in the 2010s==
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