Phased array: Difference between revisions

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=== Optics ===

{{Main|Phased-array optics}}

Within the visible and infrared spectrum of electromagnetic waves it is possible to construct [[phased-array optics|optical phased arrays]] (OPAs) which allow for dynamic beam forming and [[beam steering]] without mechanically moving parts <ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Poulton |first=Christopher V. |last2=Yaacobi |first2=Ami |last3=Cole |first3=David B. |last4=Byrd |first4=Matthew J. |last5=Raval |first5=Manan |last6=Vermeulen |first6=Diedrik |last7=Watts |first7=Michael R. |date=2017-10-15 |title=Coherent solid-state LIDAR with silicon photonic optical phased arrays |url=https://opg.optica.org/ol/abstract.cfm?uri=ol-42-20-4091 |journal=Optics Letters |language=EN |volume=42 |issue=20 |pages=4091–4094 |doi=10.1364/OL.42.004091 |issn=1539-4794}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Jie |last2=Timurdogan |first2=Erman |last3=Yaacobi |first3=Ami |last4=Hosseini |first4=Ehsan Shah |last5=Watts |first5=Michael R. |date=2013-01-09 |title=Large-scale nanophotonic phased array |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11727 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=493 |issue=7431 |pages=195–199 |doi=10.1038/nature11727 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref>. They are used in wavelength multiplexers and filters for telecommunication purposes,<ref name=":5">P. D. Trinh, S. Yegnanarayanan, F. Coppinger and B. Jalali [http://www.ee.ucla.edu/~oecs/comp_pub/intr_opt/Optics23.pdf Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) Phased-Array Wavelength Multi/Demultiplexer with Extremely Low-Polarization Sensitivity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051208105830/http://www.ee.ucla.edu/~oecs/comp_pub/intr_opt/Optics23.pdf |date=2005-12-08 }}, ''IEEE Photonics Technology Letters'', Vol. 9, No. 7, July 1997</ref> as well as in [[Lidar]] <ref name=":6" />, [[Free-space optical communication]] <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Serati |first=S. |last2=Stockley |first2=J. |date=2003 |title=Phased array of phased arrays for free space optical communications |url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1235111/ |journal=Proc. IEEE Aerospace Conf. |publisher=IEEE |volume=4 |pages=4_1809–4_1816 |doi=10.1109/AERO.2003.1235111 |isbn=978-0-7803-7651-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Optica Publishing Group |url=https://opg.optica.org/oe/viewmedia.cfm?uri=oe-30-4-5026&html=true |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=opg.optica.org |doi=10.1364/oe.447351}}</ref>, and holography. OPAs were also shown to enable lensless projectors<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/60779/1/06886570.pdf|title=Electronic Two-Dimensional Beam Steering for Integrated Optical Phased Arrays|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809130907/http://authors.library.caltech.edu/60779/1/06886570.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-09|url-status=live}}</ref>, lensless cameras<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=An 8x8 Heterodyne Lens-less OPA Camera |url=http://chic.caltech.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Cleo_2017_2D_OPA_V7.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713050602/http://chic.caltech.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Cleo_2017_2D_OPA_V7.pdf |archive-date=2017-07-13}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=A One-Dimensional Heterodyne Lens-Free OPA Camera |url=http://chic.caltech.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/CLEO_SI-2016-STu3G.3.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722055717/http://chic.caltech.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/CLEO_SI-2016-STu3G.3.pdf |archive-date=2017-07-22}}</ref>, and chip-scale [[optical tweezers]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sneh |first=Tal |last2=Corsetti |first2=Sabrina |last3=Notaros |first3=Milica |last4=Kikkeri |first4=Kruthika |last5=Voldman |first5=Joel |last6=Notaros |first6=Jelena |date=2024-10-03 |title=Optical tweezing of microparticles and cells using silicon-photonics-based optical phased arrays |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52273-x |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=8493 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-52273-x |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=11450221 |pmid=39362852}}</ref>.

Due to the short wavelengths OPAs are typically realised in nanofabricated [[photonic integrated circuit]] platforms utilising materials such as [[Silicon on insulator]]<ref name=":5" />, [[Germanium]] on [[Silicon]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prost |first=Mathias |last2=Ling |first2=Yi-Chun |last3=Cakmakyapan |first3=Semih |last4=Zhang |first4=Yu |last5=Zhang |first5=Kaiqi |last6=Hu |first6=Junjie |last7=Zhang |first7=Yichi |last8=Yoo |first8=S. J. Ben |date=2019-12-12 |title=Solid-State MWIR Beam Steering Using Optical Phased Array on Germanium-Silicon Photonic Platform |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8896888/ |journal=IEEE Photonics Journal |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1109/JPHOT.2019.2953222 |issn=1943-0655}}</ref> , [[Silicon nitride]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poulton |first=Christopher V. |last2=Byrd |first2=Matthew J. |last3=Raval |first3=Manan |last4=Su |first4=Zhan |last5=Li |first5=Nanxi |last6=Timurdogan |first6=Erman |last7=Coolbaugh |first7=Douglas |last8=Vermeulen |first8=Diedrik |last9=Watts |first9=Michael R. |date=2017-01-01 |title=Large-scale silicon nitride nanophotonic phased arrays at infrared and visible wavelengths |url=https://opg.optica.org/ol/abstract.cfm?uri=ol-42-1-21 |journal=Optics Letters |language=EN |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=21–24 |doi=10.1364/OL.42.000021 |issn=1539-4794}}</ref> or polymers<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Sung-Moon |last2=Lee |first2=Eun-Su |last3=Chun |first3=Kwon-Wook |last4=Jin |first4=Jinung |last5=Oh |first5=Min-Cheol |date=2021-05-19 |title=Compact solid-state optical phased array beam scanners based on polymeric photonic integrated circuits |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-90120-x |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=10576 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-90120-x |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8134440 |pmid=34012058}}</ref>.