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=== ''Spacewar!'' (1962) and early endeavors ===
A specific date of origin for video game modding has not been agreed upon by historians, partly due to discussion over what constitutes a mod and partly because of insufficient historical documentation.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":27" /> However, the very [[First computer game|first computer games]] already were being actively modified by the first generation of [[Hacker|hackers]],<ref name=":27" /> and researchers have described modding as an evolution of the [[hacker culture]] which pioneered the [[video game industry]].<ref name="auto2">{{cite journal |last1=Coleman |first1=Sarah |last2=Dyer-Witheford |first2=Nick |date=2007 |title=Playing on the digital commons: collectivities, capital and contestation in videogame culture |journal=[[Media, Culture & Society]] |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=934–953 |doi=10.1177/0163443707081700 |s2cid=154832086}}</ref>
Widely considered one of the first computer games,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Museum of the Moving Image - Exhibitions - Spacewar! Video Games Blast Off |url=http://www.movingimage.us/exhibitions/2012/12/15/detail/spacewar-video-games-blast-off/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618154623/http://www.movingimage.us/exhibitions/2012/12/15/detail/spacewar-video-games-blast-off/ |archive-date=2018-06-18 |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=www.movingimage.us |language=en}}</ref> the 1962 game ''[[Spacewar!]]'' was distributed freely as testing software for the [[PDP-1]], an early computer.<ref name=":2" /> The game was a result of hardware<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sotamaa |first=Olli |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781136290510 |title=The Routledge Companion to Video Game Studies |date=2014-01-03 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-29051-0 |editor-last=Wolf |editor-first=Mark J.P. |edition=1st |language=en |chapter=Artifact |doi=10.4324/9780203114261 |editor-last2=Perron |editor-first2=Bernard}}</ref> and software experimentation, supported by the programming culture<ref name="auto2" /> at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT).<ref name="cc">{{cite magazine |last=Graetz |first=Martin |date=August 1981 |title=The origin of Spacewar |url=https://archive.org/details/creativecomputing-1981-08/page/n59/mode/2up |magazine=[[Creative Computing (magazine)|Creative Computing]] |pages=56–67 |volume=7 |issue=8 |issn=0097-8140}}</ref> On university campuses where the computer was installed, programmers continued to experiment with the game by modifying it heavily,<ref name=":2" /> allured by the prospect of fixing a "dire problem [...] as easily as changing a few instructions", as [[Steven Levy]] describes. Their efforts resulted in a wave of improvements to ''Spacewar!'', from changing aspects such as gameplay [[Game physics|physics]] to creating new [[Video game graphics|graphics]].<ref name=":24" />{{Rp|pages=52-54}} The final version of the game was ultimately a product of a group effort of hackers, who contributed to the game without pay.<ref name=":25">{{Cite book |last=Christiansen |first=Peter |title=Game mods: design, theory and criticism |date=2012 |publisher=ETC Press |isbn=978-1-300-54061-8 |editor-last=Champion |editor-first=Erik |___location=Pittsburgh, PA |chapter=Between a Mod and a Hard Place}}</ref>{{Reference page|page=32}} In this way, ''Spacewar!'' was not only the first video game, but also the first video game to be modded.<ref name=":25" /> On the popularity of hacking ''Spacewar!,'' Levy reflected:<blockquote>Like any other program, it was placed in the drawer for anyone to access, look at, and rewrite as they saw fit. The group effort that stage by stage had improved the program could have stood for an argument for the [[Hacker ethic|Hacker Ethic]]: an urge to get inside the workings of the thing and make it better had led to measurable improvement. And of course it was all a huge amount of fun.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book |last=Levy |first=Steven |title=Hackers |date=May 2010 |publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]] |isbn=978-1-4493-8839-3 |edition=1st |___location=Sebastopol, CA |pages=}}</ref>{{Reference page|pages=55-56}}</blockquote>Other early video games also released as iterations of collaborative improvements. [[Colossal Cave Adventure|''Colossal Cave Adventure'']], a [[text adventure game]] developed by [[Will Crowther]] and released in 1976, was greatly expanded upon by Stanford graduate [[Don Woods (programmer)|Don Woods]].<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal |last=Jerz |first=Dennis |date=2007 |title=Somewhere Nearby is Colossal Cave: Examining Will Crowther's Original "Adventure" in Code and in Kentucky |url=http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/001/2/000009/000009.html |journal=[[Alliance of Digital Humanities Organizations|Digital Humanities Quarterly]] |volume=1 |issue=2 |issn=1938-4122 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616070717/http://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/001/2/000009/000009.html |archive-date=June 16, 2016}}</ref><ref name=":25" /> After receiving the source code to the game from Crowther, Woods increased the game's complexity and released a modified version in 1977<ref name=":26" /> to instant success.<ref name=":25" /> The desire to improve software—the "hacker ethic", as described by Levy—became a crucial factor to the emergence of modern modding culture.<ref name=":2" />{{Reference page|page=8}} Before the development of affordable and more accessible [[Personal computer|personal computers]], the ability to mod games was restricted to where computers at the time were able to be installed, such as university campuses like MIT.<ref name=":27" /> With the advent of [[Home computer|home computers]] in the late 1970s to early 1980s, such as the [[Apple II]] and the [[Commodore 64]],<ref name=":2" /> video games were given a new space to flourish, accompanied by a new generation of modders.<ref name=":25" /> The subculture of "[[Software cracking|cracking]]" video games—hacking their source code—emerged as a niche endeavor among hobbyists.<ref name=":20" /> Cracks added gameplay [[Cheat (video games)|cheats]] or removed copyright structures, allowing games to be distributed freely.<ref name=":2" /> Using basic file editing software and a program that would [[Core dump|dump]] the contents of files, modders additionally scoured games for their assets through trial and error, with the goal of replacing them with their own levels and graphics.<ref name=":25" /> A famous example is ''Castle Smurfenstein'', a modification of the 1981 Apple II game [[Castle Wolfenstein|''Castle Wolfenstein'']]. Andrew Johnson and Preston Nevins, two high school students, replaced the game's [[Nazi]] characters with those from the popular 80's cartoon [[The Smurfs|''The Smurfs'']]. The game is often cited as a pioneering example of modding culture.<ref name=":25" /><ref name=":2" />{{Reference page|pages=|page=9}}
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Developing a video game mod requires a range of technical and social skills, such as [[video game programming|programming]], [[3D modeling]], [[sound design]], art, and [[project management]].<ref name="auto3" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Antonelli |first=William |title=It's easier than ever to turn video game modding into a career |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/video-game-modding-patreon-creators-hobby-into-career-2025-7 |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref> Modders represent a wide spectrum of individuals with varying degrees of experience, skill sets, and motivations.<ref name="auto" /> They work in teams of individuals with different specializations.<ref name=":30">{{Cite book |last=Hawranke |first=Thomas |title=Playful participatory practices: theoretical and methodological reflections |date=2020 |publisher=Springer VS |isbn=978-3-658-28618-7 |editor-last=Abend |editor-first=Pablo |series=Perspektiven der Game Studies |___location=Wiesbaden, Germany |chapter=Intrinsic Research—a Practice-Based Approach to Computer Game Modding |editor-last2=Beil |editor-first2=Benjamin |editor-last3=Ossa |editor-first3=Vanessa}}</ref>
===Tools===
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===Paid mods===
While generally satisfied with working for free,<ref name=":19" /> mod authors can create and sell mods for various titles through game developer-created channels, including Bethesda's Verified Creators Program for their games and [[InZOI|InZOI's]] Creation Marketplace.<ref name=":6" /> Authors can also accept donations for their mods independently on [[Crowdfunding|crowdfunding websites]], such as [[Patreon]] and Ko-fi, avoiding EULA restrictions which prohibit direct sale of mods.<ref name=":9" /> Mod uploaders on [[Nexus Mods]] can earn "donation points", which they can trade in for real-world currency sourced from a donated pool. Over $12 million has been paid to top creators on the platform since 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Livingston |first=Christopher |date=2018-05-22 |title=Nexus Mods launches reward system for modders, seeds it with $100,000 |url=https://www.pcgamer.com/nexus-mods-launches-system-to-pay-modders-seeds-it-with-dollar100000/ |access-date=2025-07-28 |work=PC Gamer |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":9" />
The implementation of "paid mod" systems has been controversial.<ref name=":14" /> Since their attempted introduction on Steam, the market generally has steered away from paid mods.<ref name=":19" /> In 2022, [[Electronic Arts]] updated their policy to disallow "money transactions of any type" for independently distributed paid mods for [[The Sims 4|''The Sims 4'']].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=2022-08-02 |title=EA Changes Sims 4 Paid Mod Rules After Fan Backlash |url=https://kotaku.com/ea-paid-mods-early-access-sims-4-rule-changes-maxis-1849362416 |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=Kotaku |language=en}}</ref> Criticisms of the change came from ''Sims'' 4 creators and mod authors who sold mods through an [[early access]] model on crowdfunding websites and released completed mods for free. The policy was later updated to allow paid mods using the early access model while still prohibiting completed mods sold with an explicit paywall.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-03 |title=EA rules all Sims 4 mods must be available 'in full for free' |url=https://www.gameshub.com/news/news/the-sims-4-mods-policy-ea-early-access-commercial-25509/ |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=www.gameshub.com |language=en-AU}}</ref> In 2024, Nexus Mods clarified their policies regarding the hosting of paid mods, including disallowing mods that require other paid mods as a prerequisite as well as [[Game demo|lite and demo versions]] of externally hosted paid mods, citing that paid modding is "in direct conflict" with their goal of making modding easy.<ref name=":5" /> Bethesda replaced their [[Creation Club]] with Creations, a new system for free and paid mod hosting and distribution within their titles such as Skyrim. Implemented in 2023, reception of the system was widely negative,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cryer |first=Hirun |date=2023-12-06 |title="Disappointed" Skyrim modders pledge to never charge for their creations after Bethesda resurrects paid mod shop |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/disappointed-skyrim-modders-pledge-to-never-charge-for-their-creations-after-bethesda-resurrects-paid-mod-shop/ |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=GamesRadar+ |language=en}}</ref> with criticisms of the price, the harm on the community, and the practice of abandoning free mods in favor of pushing paid updated versions. The system was present in the 2024 release of [[Starfield (video game)|Starfield]], where it received similar negative reception<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rossi |first=José V. |date=2024-10-14 |title=Starfield Fans Still Aren't Happy About the Creation Club |url=https://gamerant.com/starfield-creation-club-fans-unhappy-high-prices-mods/ |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=Game Rant |language=en}}</ref> However, Creations has also been praised as a mutually beneficial platform that allows modders to work with game developers and have their work promoted in game.<ref name=":31" />▼
Arguments against paid mods have been diverse across mod-users and modders. Some users denounce developers who sell mods as "[[sellouts]]", arguing that modding should be a "labor-of-love". Criticism towards the price of cosmetic mods has been drawn, with users pointing out that the selling of third-party assets used in many mods could be classified as copyright infringement. With Steam's integration of paid mods in 2015, users were apprehensive about the centralization and surveillance of modding, as all submitted mods had to be approved by Steam. Other users mentioned that creators deserve to be compensated for their work and could imagine paying for extensively elaborate mods.<ref name=":31" />
▲The implementation of "paid mod" systems has been controversial.<ref name=":14" /> Since their attempted introduction on Steam, the market generally has steered away from paid mods.<ref name=":19" /> In 2022, [[Electronic Arts]] updated their policy to disallow "money transactions of any type" for independently distributed paid mods for [[The Sims 4|''The Sims 4'']].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=2022-08-02 |title=EA Changes Sims 4 Paid Mod Rules After Fan Backlash |url=https://kotaku.com/ea-paid-mods-early-access-sims-4-rule-changes-maxis-1849362416 |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=Kotaku |language=en}}</ref> Criticisms of the change came from ''Sims'' 4 creators and mod authors who sold mods through an [[early access]] model on crowdfunding websites and released completed mods for free. The policy was later updated to allow paid mods using the early access model while still prohibiting completed mods sold with an explicit paywall.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-03 |title=EA rules all Sims 4 mods must be available 'in full for free' |url=https://www.gameshub.com/news/news/the-sims-4-mods-policy-ea-early-access-commercial-25509/ |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=www.gameshub.com |language=en-AU}}</ref> In 2024, Nexus Mods clarified their policies regarding the hosting of paid mods, including disallowing mods that require other paid mods as a prerequisite as well as [[Game demo|lite and demo versions]] of externally hosted paid mods, citing that paid modding is "in direct conflict" with their goal of making modding easy.<ref name=":5" /> Bethesda replaced their [[Creation Club]] with Creations, a new system for free and paid mod hosting and distribution within their titles such as Skyrim. Implemented in 2023, reception of the system was widely negative,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cryer |first=Hirun |date=2023-12-06 |title="Disappointed" Skyrim modders pledge to never charge for their creations after Bethesda resurrects paid mod shop |url=https://www.gamesradar.com/disappointed-skyrim-modders-pledge-to-never-charge-for-their-creations-after-bethesda-resurrects-paid-mod-shop/ |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=GamesRadar+ |language=en}}</ref> with criticisms of the price, the harm on the community, and the practice of abandoning free mods in favor of pushing paid updated versions. The system was present in the 2024 release of [[Starfield (video game)|Starfield]], where it received similar negative reception<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rossi |first=José V. |date=2024-10-14 |title=Starfield Fans Still Aren't Happy About the Creation Club |url=https://gamerant.com/starfield-creation-club-fans-unhappy-high-prices-mods/ |access-date=2025-07-27 |website=Game Rant |language=en}}</ref>
==Types==
In the context of video games, the words "mod" and "modification" are not primarily academic terms and are sometimes used in conflicting ways to encompass and distinguish varieties of alterations to video games. Generally, as defined and used by players, mod makers, and gaming press, the definition of video game modding is the alteration or addition of content to an existing video game with [[user-generated content]], particularly on PC. This understanding can significantly differ between game genres.<ref name=":31">{{Cite journal |last=Walsdorff |first=Finja |date=2022 |title=Video Game Modding and Money. From Precarious Playbor to Reimbursed Labor of Love |url=https://www.gamescoop.uni-siegen.de/spielformen/index.php/journal/article/view/23/18 |journal=Spiel{{!}}Formen |volume=2 |doi=10.25969/mediarep/19008}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book |last=Sotamaa |first=Olli |url=https://researchportal.tuni.fi/en/publications/the-players-game-towards-understanding-player-production-among-co |title=The Player's Game: Towards Understanding Player Production Among Computer Game Cultures |date=2009 |publisher=Tampere University Press |isbn=978-951-44-7650-1 |pages=91-98 |language=English}}</ref>
===Total conversion===<!-- This section is linked from [[First-person shooter]] -->
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