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=Libro di Kells=
=Premi Nobel=
===Riproduzioni===
'''Pär Fabian Lagerkvist''' ([[23 maggio]] [[1891]] – [[11 luglio]] [[1974]]) è stato uno scrittore [[Svezia|svedese]]. Vinse il [[Premio Nobel per la letteratura]] nel [[1951]].
[[Image:BookKells.jpg|thumb|Folio 183r from the 1990 facsimile of the Book of Kells contains the text "Erat autem hora tertia" ("now it was the third hour").]]
In 1951, the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] publisher Urs Graf Verlag Bern produced the first [[facsimile]]<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-7134%28194807%2923%3A3%3C555%3AA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-7&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage Announcements]. ''Speculum, Vol. 23, No. 3, July, 1948''. pp. 555-558.</ref> of the Book of Kells. The majority of the pages were reproduced in black-and-white [[photographs]], but the edition also featured forty-eight colour reproductions, including all of the full-page decorations. Under license from the Board of Trinity College Dublin, [[Thames and Hudson]] produced a second facsimile edition in 1974. This edition included all the full-page illustrations in the manuscript and a representative section of the ornamentation of the text pages, together with some enlarged details of the illustrations. The reproductions were all in full colour, with photography by John Kennedy, Green Studio, Dublin.
In 1979, Swiss publisher Faksimile-Verlag Luzern requested permission to produce a full-colour facsimile of the book. Permission was initially denied, because Trinity College officials felt that the risk of damage to the book was too high. By 1986, Faksimile-Verlag had developed a process that used gentle suction to straighten a page so that it could be photographed without touching it and so won permission to publish a new facsimile.<ref>McGill, Douglas. "[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE6D8153FF931A35755C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all Irelands's Book of Kells is Facsimiled]". ''New York Times'', 2 June 1987. Retrieved on 28 February 2008.</ref> After each page was photographed, a single-page facsimile was prepared so the colours could be carefully compared to the original and adjustments made where necessary. The completed work was published in 1990 in a two-volume set containing the full facsimile and scholarly commentary. One copy is held by the [[Anglican]] Church in Kells, on the site of the original monastery.
Lagerkvist scrisse [[poesia|poesie]], opere teatrali, romanzi racconti, storie e saggi<!-- of considerable expressive power and influence from his early 20s to his late 70s. Among his central themes was the fundamental question of good and evil, which he examined through such figures as the man who was freed instead of Jesus, [[Barabbas]], and the [[wandering Jew]] Ahasuerus. As a moralist, he used religious motifs and figures from the [[Christianity|Christian]] tradition without following the doctrines of the [[Church]].-->
Thai-German architect [[Mario Kleff]] also reproduced folios from the Book of Kells and together with Faksimile-Verlag Publisher Urs Düggelin, curated an exhibition of the Book of Kells which included these facsimile pages. These facsimiles were created using the original techniques and were also presented in the Diocesan Museum of Trier.<ref>{{ cite news | url=http://www.slideshare.net/MarioKleff/ein-meisterwerk-a-masterpiece-book-of-kells | title=Book of Kells | work=PAULINUS | last= Noyer |first= Catherine | date=1997-10-19| accessdate=1997-10-19 | ___location=Trier}}</ref>
==Biografia e opere==
Lagerkvist nacque a [[Växjö]] ([[Småland]]).
===Decoration===
Lagerkvist ricevette una tradizionale istruzione religiosa che influenzò fortemente tutte le sue opere, although his passion for religion mellowed in his later years under the influence of modern scientific ideas, which eventually led him to break with the religion of his forefathers.
The text is accompanied by many full-page [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures]], while smaller painted decorations appear throughout the text in unprecedented quantities. The decoration of the book is famous for combining intricate detail with bold and energetic compositions. The characteristics of the Insular manuscript initial, as described by Carl Nordenfalk, here reach their most extreme realization: "the initials ... are conceived as elastic forms expanding and contracting with a pulsating rhythm. The kinetic energy of their contours escapes into freely drawn appendices, a spiral line which in turn generates new curvilinear motifs...".<ref>Nordenfalk 1977, 13.</ref> The illustrations feature a broad range of colours, with purple, lilac, red, pink, green, and yellow being the colours most often used. Earlier manuscripts tend toward more narrow palettes: the Book of Durrow, for example, uses only four colours. As is usual with Insular work, there was no use of [[Metal leaf#Gold Leaf|gold]] or [[Metal leaf|silver leaf]] in the manuscript. The [[pigments]] for the illustrations, which included red and yellow ochre, green copper pigment (sometimes called ''[[verdigris]]''), indigo and [[lapis lazuli]],<ref>Fuchs and Oltrogge in O'Mahoney 1994, 134-135.</ref> would have been imported from the Mediterranean region and, in the case of the lapis lazuli, from northeast Afghanistan.<ref>Meehan 1994, 88.</ref>
The lavish illumination programme is far greater than any other surviving Insular Gospel book. There are ten surviving full-page illuminations including two [[evangelist portrait]]s, three pages with the four [[evangelist symbols]], a [[carpet page]], a miniature of the [[Virgin and Child]], a miniature of Christ enthroned, and miniatures of the [[Arrest of Jesus]] and the [[Temptation of Christ]]. There are thirteen surviving full pages of decorated text including pages for the first few words of each of the Gospels. Eight of the ten pages of the canon tables have extensive decoration. It is highly probable that there were other pages of miniature and decorated text that are now lost. In addition to these major pages, there are a host of smaller decorations and decorated initials throughout the text; in fact only two pages have no decoration.<ref>Nordenfalk 1977, 108.</ref>
Inizialmente Lagerkvist supportò il modernismo e il radicalismo, come mostrato nel manifesto ''Ordkonst och bildkonst'' (word and pickther art) (1913) e nelle opere ''Den Svåre Stunden'' ("The Difficult Hour"). Fu anche influenzato dal socialismo.
[[Image:KellsFol002rCanonTable.jpg|thumb|right|Folio 2r of the Book of Kells contains one of the [[Eusebian Canons]].]]
The extant folios of the manuscript start with the fragment of the glossary of Hebrew names. This fragment occupies the left-hand column of folio 1r. A miniature of the four evangelist symbols, now much abraded, make up the right-hand column. The miniature is oriented so that the volume must be turned ninety degrees in order to view it properly.<ref name="Henry167">Henry 1974, 167.</ref> The four evangelist symbols are a visual theme that runs throughout the book. They are almost always shown together to emphasise the doctrine of the four Gospels' unity of message.
One of the author's earliest works is ''Ångest'' (''Anguish'', [[1916]]), a [[violence|violent]] and disillusioned collection of poems. His anguish was derived from his fear of death, the [[World War I|World War]], and personal crisis. He tried to explore how a person can find a meaningful life in a world where a war can kill millions for very little reason. "Anguish, anguish is my heritage / the wound of my throat / the cry of my heart in the world." ("Anguish", 1916.) "Love is nothing. Anguish is everything / the anguish of living." ("Love is nothing", 1916.) This pessimism, however, slowly faded, as testified by his subsequent works, ''Det eviga leendet'' (''The Eternal Smile'', 1920), the autobiographical novel ''Gäst hos verkligheten'' (''Guest of Reality'', 1925) and the prose monologue ''Det besegrade livet'' (''The triumph of Life'', 1927), in which the faith in man is predominant.
The unity of the Gospels is further emphasised by the decoration of the Eusebian canon tables. The canon tables themselves inherently illustrate the unity of the Gospels by organising corresponding passages from the Gospels. The Eusebian canon tables normally require twelve pages. In the Book of Kells, the makers of the manuscript planned for twelve pages (folios 1v through 7r) but for unknown reasons, condensed them into ten, leaving folios 6v and 7r blank. This condensation rendered the canon tables unusable. The decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean, where it was traditional to enclose the tables within an [[Arcade (architecture)|arcade]] (as seen in the [[London Canon Tables]]).<ref name="Henry167"/> The Kells manuscript presents this [[Motif (visual arts)|motif]] in an Insular spirit, where the arcades are not seen as architectural elements but rather become stylised geometric patterns with Insular ornamentation. The four evangelist symbols occupy the spaces under and above the arches. The last two canon tables are presented within a grid. This presentation is limited to Insular manuscripts and was first seen in the Book of Durrow.<ref name="Calkins7982">Calkins 1983, 79-82.</ref>
Ten years later ''Hjärtats sånger'' (''Songs of the Heart'') ([[1926]]) appeared. This collection of poems is slightly less desperate in its tone and expresses the strive to come to peace with life itself that was to become so prominent in his later works. In ''Hjärtats sånger'' he wrote: "Only you, my bosom, is left, / you who can suffer, / you who can feel the depth of pain / but not complain." His prose [[novella]] ''Bödeln'', later adapted for the stage, (''The Hangman'', [[1933]]; play, [[1934]]) shows his growing concern with the [[totalitarianism]] and brutality that began to sweep across [[Europe]] in the years prior to [[World War II]]. Criticism against Fascism is also present in the play ''Mannen utan själ'' (''The Man Without a Soul'', 1936).
[[Image:KellsFol007vMadonnaChild V2.jpg|thumb|left|Folio 7v contains an image of the [[Virgin and Child]]. This is the oldest extant image of the Virgin Mary in a Western manuscript.]]
The remainder of the book is broken into sections with the divisions set off by miniatures and full pages of decorated text. Each of the Gospels is introduced by a consistent decorative programme. The preliminary matter is treated as one section and introduced by a lavish decorative spread. In addition to the preliminaries and the Gospels, the "second beginning" of the Gospel of Matthew is also given its own introductory decoration.<!-- very repetitive section -->
The preliminary matter is introduced by an [[icon]]ic image of the [[Virgin and Child]] (folio 7v). This miniature is the first representation of the Virgin in a Western manuscript. Mary is shown in an odd mixture of frontal and three-quarter pose. This miniature also bears a stylistic similarity to the carved image on the lid of [[St. Cuthbert's coffin]] of 698. The iconography of the miniature may derive from an Eastern or Coptic icon.<ref name="Calkins82">Calkins 1983, 82.</ref>
Lagerkvist's 1944 novel ''Dvärgen'' (''[[The Dwarf]]''), a cautionary tale about evil, was the first to bring him international attention. This was followed in 1949 by the unusual plat ''Låt människan leva'' (''Let Man Live'').
The miniature of the Virgin and Child faces the first page of text and is an appropriate preface to the beginning of the ''Breves Causae'' of Matthew, which begins ''Nativitas Christi in Bethlem'' (the birth of Christ in Bethlehem). The beginning page ([[:Image:KellsFol008rBrevCausMatt.jpg|folio 8r]]) of the text of the ''Breves Causae'' is decorated and contained within an elaborate frame. The two-page spread of the miniature and the text makes a vivid introductory statement for the prefatory material. The opening line of each of the sections of the preliminary matter is enlarged and decorated (see above for the ''Breves causae'' of Luke), but no other section of the preliminaries is given the same level of treatment as the beginning of the ''Breves Causae'' of Matthew.<ref name="Calkins82"/>
''[[Barabbas (novel)|Barabbas]] ([[1950]])'', which was immediately hailed as a masterwork (by among others fellow Nobel laureate [[André Gide]]) is probably Lagerkvist's most famous work. The novel is based on a minor [[Biblical]] story. [[Jesus of Nazareth]] was sentenced to die by the Roman authorities immediately before the Jewish [[Passover]], when it was customary for the Romans to release someone convicted of a capital offense. When the Roman procurator [[Pontius Pilate]] offers to free Jesus or Barabbas, a convicted thief and murderer, a Jerusalem mob demands the release of Barabbas, who spends the rest of his life trying to come to terms with why he was chosen to live.
[[Image:Kelljohn.jpg|thumb|right|Folio 291v contains a portrait of [[John the Evangelist]].]]
The novel was filmed in [[1962]], with [[Anthony Quinn]] playing the title role.
The book was designed so that each of the Gospels would have an elaborate introductory decorative programme. Each Gospel was originally prefaced by a full page miniature containing the four evangelist symbols, followed by a blank page. Then came a portrait of the evangelist which faced the opening text of the Gospel which was given an elaborate decorative treatment.<ref>Henry 1974, 172.</ref> The Gospel of Matthew retains both its Evangelist portrait ([[:Image:KellsFol028vPortMatt.jpg|folio 28v]]) and its page of Evangelist symbols (folio 27r, see above). The Gospel of Mark is missing the Evangelist portrait but retains its Evangelist symbols page ([[:Image:KellsFol129v4EvangelistSymbols.jpg|folio 129v]]). The Gospel of Luke is missing both the portrait and the Evangelist symbols page. The Gospel of John, like the Gospel of Matthew, retains both its portrait (folio 291v, see at right) and its Evangelist symbols page ([[:Image:KellsFol290v4EvangelistSymbols.jpg|folio 290v]]). It can be assumed that the portraits for Mark and Luke and the symbols page for Luke at one time existed but have been lost.<ref>Henry 1974, 172-173.</ref> The use of all four of the Evangelist symbols in front of each Gospel is striking and was intended to reinforce the message of the unity of the Gospels.
The decoration of the opening few words of each Gospel was lavish. These pages were, in effect, turned into carpet pages. The decoration of these texts is so elaborate that the text itself is almost illegible. The opening page (folio 28r) of Matthew may stand as an example. (See illustration at left.) The page consists of only two words: ''Liber generationis'' ("The book of the generation"). The ''lib'' of ''Liber'' is turned in to a giant monogram which dominates the entire page. The ''er'' of ''Liber'' is presented as an interlaced ornament within the ''b'' of the ''lib'' monogram. ''Generationis'' is broken into three lines and contained within an elaborate frame in the right lower quadrant of the page. The entire assemblage is contained within an elaborate border.<ref name="Calkins85">Calkins 1983, 85.</ref>
Lagerkvist died in [[Stockholm]].
[[Image:KellsFol029rIncipitMatthew.jpg|thumb|left|Folio 29r contains the [[incipit]] to the [[Gospel of Matthew]].]] The border and the letters themselves are further decorated with elaborate spirals and [[Celtic knot|knot work]], many of them zoomorphic. The opening words of Mark, ''[[:Image:KellsFol130rIncipitMark.jpg|Initium evangelii]]'' ("The beginning of the Gospel"), Luke, ''[[:Image:KellsFol188rQuoniam.gif|Quoniam quidem multi]]'', and John, ''[[:Image:KellsFol292rIncipJohn.jpg|In principio erat verbum]]'' ("In the beginning was the Word"), are all given similar treatments. Although the decoration of these pages was most extensive in the Book of Kells, these pages were decorated in all of the other Insular Gospel Books.<ref>Calkins 1983, 82-85.</ref>
The Gospel of Matthew begins with a [[genealogy of Jesus]]. At {{bibleref|Matthew|1:18}}, the actual narrative of [[Nativity of Jesus|Christ's life starts]]. This "second beginning" to Matthew was given emphasis in many early Gospel Books, so much so that the two sections were often treated as separate works. The second beginning begins with the word ''Christ''. The Greek letters [[Chi (letter)|chi]] and [[Rho (letter)|rho]] were often used in mediaeval manuscripts to abbreviate the word ''Christ''. In Insular Gospel Books, the initial [[Labarum|Chi Rho]] [[monogram]] was enlarged and decorated. In the Book of Kells, this second beginning was given a decorative programme equal to those that preface the individual Gospels.<ref name="Calkins85"/> Folio 32 verso has a miniature of Christ enthroned. (It has been argued that this miniature is one of the lost evangelist portraits. However, the iconography is quite different from the extant portraits, and current scholarship accepts this identification and placement for this miniature.) Facing this miniature, on [[:Image:KellsFol033rCarpetPage.jpg|folio 33 recto]], is the only carpet page in the Book of Kells, which is rather anomalous; the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] has five extant carpet pages and the [[Book of Durrow]] has six. The blank verso of folio 33 faces the single most lavish miniature of the early mediaeval period, the Book of Kells Chi Rho monogram, which serves as incipit for the narrative of the life of Christ.
==Works==
*''Ordkonst och bildkonst'' (1913)
*''Motiv'' (1914)
*''Järn och människor'' (1915)
*''Ångest'' (1916)
*''Teater'' (1918)
*''Kaos'' (1919)
*''Det eviga leendet'' (1920)
*''Den lyckliges väg'' (1921)
*''Onda sagor'' (1924)
*''Gäst hos verkligheten'' (1925)
*''Hjärtats sånger'' (1926)
*''Han som fick leva om sitt liv'' (1928)
*''Bödeln'' (1933)
*''Den knutna näven'' (1934)
*''Seger i mörker'' (1939)
*''Sång och strid'' (1940)
*''[[The_Dwarf|Dvärgen]]'' (1944)
*''Barabbas'' (1950)
*''Aftonland'' (1953)
*''Sibyllan'' (1956)
*''Det heliga landet'' (1964)
*''Mariamne'' (1967)
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[[Image:KellsFol034rChiRhoMonogram.jpg|thumb|right|Folio 34r contains the [[Labarum|Chi Rho]] monogram.<ref>Werner 1972, 129-139.</ref> [[Chi (letter)|Chi]] and [[Rho (letter)|rho]] are the first two letters of the word ''[[Christ]]'' in [[Greek language|Greek]].]]
{{Nobel Prize in Literature Laureates 1951-1975}}
In the Book of Kells, the Chi Rho monogram has grown to consume the entire page. The letter chi dominates the page with one arm swooping across the majority of the page. The letter rho is snuggled underneath the arms of the chi. Both letters are divided into compartments which are lavishly decorated with knot work and other patterns. The background is likewise awash in a mass of swirling and knotted decoration. Within this mass of decoration are hidden animals and insects. Three angels arise from one of the cross arms of the chi. This miniature is the largest and most lavish extant Chi Rho monogram in any Insular Gospel Books and is the culmination of a tradition that started with the [[Book of Durrow]].<ref name="Calkins85"/>
[[Category:1891 births|Lagerkvist, Pär]]
[[Category:1974 deaths|Lagerkvist, Pär]]
[[Category:Swedish atheists|Lagerkvist, Pär]]
[[Category:Members of the Swedish Academy|Lagerkvist, Pär]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Literature|Lagerkvist, Pär]]
[[Category:Swedish-language writers|Lagerkvist, Pär]]
[[Category:Swedish language poets|Lagerkvist, Pär]]
[[Category:Uppsala University alumni|Lagerkvist, Par]]
[[Category:People from Växjö|Lagerkvist]]
The Book of Kells contains two other full-page miniatures, which illustrate episodes from the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] story. The text of Matthew is illustrated with a full-page illumination of the ''Arrest of Christ'' ([[:Image:KellsFol114rArrestOfChrist.jpg|folio 114r]]). Jesus is shown beneath a stylised arcade while being held by two much smaller figures.<ref>Nordenfalk 1977, 124.</ref> In the text of Luke, there is a full sized miniature of the ''[[Temptation of Christ]]'' ([[:Image:KellsFol202vTemptationOfChrist.jpg|folio 202v]]). Christ is shown from the waist up on top of the Temple. To his right is a crowd of people, perhaps representing his disciples. To his left and below him is a black figure of [[Satan]]. Above him hover two [[angel]]s.<ref>Nordenfalk 1977, 123.</ref>
[[ar:بار لاغركفيست]]
[[bs:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[br:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[bg:Пер Лагерквист]]
[[ca:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[cs:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[da:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[de:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[et:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[es:Pär Fabien Lagerkvist]]
[[eo:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[eu:Par Lagerkvist]]
[[fr:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[hi:पार लागेरक्विस्ट]]
[[hr:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[io:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[id:Pär Fabian Lagerkvist]]
[[he:פר לגרקוויסט]]
[[sw:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[lt:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[hu:Pär Fabian Lagerkvist]]
[[nl:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[ja:ペール・ラーゲルクヴィスト]]
[[no:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[pl:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[pt:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[ro:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[ru:Лагерквист, Пер]]
[[simple:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[sk:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[fi:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[sv:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[vi:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[tr:Pär Lagerkvist]]
[[diq:Par Lagerkvist]]
[[zh:佩尔·拉格奎斯特]]
-->
The verso of the folio containing the ''[[Arrest of Jesus|Arrest of Christ]]'' contains a full page of decorated text which begins "[[:Image:KellsFol114vTuncDicit.gif|Tunc dicit illis]]". Facing the miniature of the Temptation is another full page of decorated text (folio 203r "Iesus autem plenus"). In addition to this page, five other full pages also receive elaborate treatment. In Matthew, there is one other full-page treatment ([[:Image:KellsFol124rTuncCrucixerant.jpg|folio 124r]], "Tunc crucifixerant Xpi cum eo duos latrones"). In the Gospel of Mark, there are also two pages of decorated text ([[:Image:KellsFol183rEratAutem.jpg|folio 183r]], "Erat autem hora tercia", and folio 187v, "[Et Dominus] quidem [Iesus] postquam"). The Gospel of Luke contains two pages of fully decorated text (folio 188v, "Fuit in diebus Herodis ", and [[:Image:KellsFol285rUnaAutem.jpg|folio 285r]], "Una autem sabbati valde"). Although these texts do not have miniatures associated with them, it is probable that miniatures were planned to accompany each of these texts and have either been lost or were never completed. There is no surviving full page of text in the Gospel of John other than the Incipit. However, in the other three Gospels, all of the full pages of decorated text, except for folio 188c, which begins the Nativity narration, occur within the Passion narrative. However, since the missing folios of John contain the Passion narrative, it is likely that John contained full pages of decorated text that have been lost.<ref>Calkins 1983, 92.</ref>
==Note e riferimenti==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
<references />
</div>
[[Image:KellsDecoratedInitial.jpg|thumb|left|Almost all of the folios of the Book of Kells contain small illuminations like this decorated initial.]]
=Mesopotamia=
==Impero neo-babilonese==
[[Image:Shepherd 1923 Oriental Empires c.600 BCE.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Middle East, c. 600 BC, showing extent of Chaldean rule.]]
===Independence from Assyrian rule===
Through the centuries of [[Assyria]]n domination, Babylonia enjoyed a prominent status, and revolted at the slightest indication that it did not. However, the Assyrians always managed to restore Babylonian loyalty, whether through granting of increased privileges, or militarily. That finally changed in [[627 BC]] with the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, [[Ashurbanipal]], and Babylonia rebelled under [[Nabopolàssar]] the Chaldean the following year. With help from the [[Medes]], [[Nineveh]] was sacked in 612, and the seat of empire was again transferred to Babylonia.
The decoration of the book is not limited to the major pages. Scattered through the text are decorated initials and small figures of animals and humans often twisted and tied into complicated knots. Many significant texts, such as the ''[[Lord's Prayer|Pater Noster]]'' have decorated initials. The page containing text of the [[Beatitudes]] in Matthew ([[:Image:KellsFol040vBeatitudes.jpg|folio 40v]]) has a large miniature along the left margin of the page in which the letter ''B'' which begins each line is linked into an ornate chain. The genealogy of Christ found in the Gospel of Luke ([[:Image:KellsFol200rGeneolgyOfChrist.gif|folio 200r]]) contains a similar miniature in which the word ''qui'' is repeatedly linked along the left margin. Many of the small animals scattered throughout the text serve to mark a "turn-in-the-path" (that is, a place where a line is finished in a space above or below the original line). Many other animals serve to fill spaces left at the end of lines. No two of these designs are the same. No earlier surviving manuscript has this massive amount of decoration.
===Nebuchadnezzar===
[[Image:KellsFol034rXRhoDet3.jpeg|thumb|right|The decorations of the Book of Kells can be stunningly complex, as seen in this small detail of the Chi Rho monogram page. (Folio 34r)]]
{{main|Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon}}
The decorations are all high quality and often highly complex. In one decoration, which occupies a one-inch square piece of a page, there are 158 complex interlacements of white ribbon with a black border on either side. Some decorations can only be fully seen with magnifying glasses, although lenses of the required power are not known to have been available until hundreds of years after the book's completion. The complicated knot work and interweaving found in Kells and related manuscripts have many parallels in the metalwork and stone carving of the period. Since their gradual rediscovery from the 19th century on, these designs have also had an enduring popularity. Indeed many of these motifs are used today in popular art including jewellery and [[tattoo]]s.
Nabopolassar was followed by his son [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar II]], whose reign of 43 years made Babylon once more the mistress of the civilized world. Only a small fragment of his annals has been discovered, relating to his invasion of Egypt in [[567 BC]], and referring to "Phut of the Ionians".
==Note==
===Rise of the Achaemenids===
{{references|2}}
Of the reign of the last Babylonian king, [[Nabonidus]] (''Nabu-na'id''), and the conquest of Babylonia by [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]], there is a fair amount of information available. This is chiefly derived from a chronological tablet containing the annals of Nabonidus, supplemented by another inscription of Nabonidus where he recounts his restoration of the temple of the Moon-god at Harran; as well as by a proclamation of Cyrus issued shortly after his formal recognition as king of Babylonia. It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus ([[549 BC]]) that Cyrus, the Achaemenid Persian "king of [[Anshan]]" in Elam, revolted against his suzerain [[Astyages]], "king of the Manda" or Medes, at Ecbatana. Astyages' army betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus established himself at Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Medes. Three years later Cyrus had become king of all Persia, and was engaged in a campaign in the north of [[Mesopotamia]]. Meanwhile, Nabonidus had established a camp in the desert, near the southern frontier of his kingdom, leaving his son [[Belshazzar]] (''Belsharutsur'') in command of the army.
In [[539 BC]] Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippara surrendered to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, where he was pursued by Gobryas, the governor of [[Gutium]]<ref>http://www.livius.org/gi-gr/gobryas/gobryas_1.html</ref>, and on the 16th of ''Tammuz'', two days after the capture of Sippara, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting." Nabonidus was dragged from his hiding-place, and Gutian guards were placed at the gates of the great temple of Bel, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of ''Marchesvan'' (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon, and a few days afterwards the son of Nabonidus died. A public mourning followed, lasting six days, and Cambyses accompanied the corpse to the tomb{{Fact|date=August 2007}}.
Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of [[Bel-Marduk]], who was assumed to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus in removing the images of the local gods from their ancestral shrines, to his capital Babylon. Nabonidus, in fact, had excited a strong feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the religion of Babylonia in the temple of [[Marduk]] at Babylon, and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods, the military party despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He seems to have left the defense of his kingdom to others, occupying himself with the more congenial work of excavating the foundation records of the temples and determining the dates of their builders.
The invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus was doubtless facilitated by the existence of a disaffected party in the state, as well as by the presence of foreign exiles like the Jews, who had been planted in the midst of the country. One of the first acts of Cyrus accordingly was to allow these exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them the images of their gods and their sacred vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne. The feeling was still strong that none had a right to rule over western Asia until he had been consecrated to the office by Bel and his priests; and accordingly, Cyrus henceforth assumed the imperial title of "King of Babylon."
A year before Cyrus' death, in [[529 BC]], he elevated his son [[Cambyses II]] in the government, making him king of Babylon, while he reserved for himself the fuller title of "king of the (other) provinces" of the empire. It was only when [[Darius Hystaspis]] ("the Magian") acquired the Persian throne and ruled it as a representative of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian religion]], that the old tradition was broken and the claim of Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of western Asia ceased to be acknowledged. Darius, in fact, entered Babylon as a conqueror.
After the murder of [[Smerdis the Usurper]] by Darius, it briefly recovered its independence under Nidinta-Bel, who took the name of [[Nebuchadnezzar III]], and reigned from October [[521 BC]] to August [[520 BC]], when the Persians took it by storm. A few years later, probably [[514 BC]], Babylon again revolted under [[Arakha]]; on this occasion, after its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed. E-Saggila, the great temple of Bel, however, still continued to be kept in repair and to be a center of Babylonian patriotism, until at last the foundation of [[Seleucia on the Tigris|Seleucia]] diverted the population to the new capital of Babylonia and the ruins of the old city became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government.
== Conquista islamica della Mesopotamia persiana ==
The collapse of the Sassanid polity after the death of Khusrau II left the Persians in a weak position ''vis-a-vis'' Arab invaders. At first the Muslims merely attempted to consolidate their rule over the fringes of the desert and the Lakhmid Arabs. The border town of [[Hira (city)|Hira]] fell to the Muslims in 633. The Sassanids had reorganized under a new king, [[Yazdegerd III]].
The main military commander of the Muslims, [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]], was able to conquer most of [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Iraq]]) from the Persians in a span of nine months, from April 633 until January 634, after a series of battles. The following are some of the most significant battles fought between the Muslim Arabs and the Persians in Mesopotamia.
=== Battle of Walaja ===
{{main|Battle of Walaja}}
The Battle of Walaja was a battle fought in Mesopotamia ([[Iraq]]) on [[May]] [[633]] between the [[Muslim conquests|Muslim Arabs]] under [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] against the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian Empire]] and its [[Arab]] allies. The strength of the Persian army at the battle was 10,000–50,000 compared to 18,000 for the Arabs.
Khalid decisively defeated the Persian forces using a variation of the [[Pincer movement|double envelopment]] tactical manoeuvre, similar to the manoeuvre [[Hannibal]] used to defeat the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] forces at the [[Battle of Cannae]], though Khalid developed his version independently.
=== Battle of Firaz ===
{{main|Battle of Firaz}}
Khalid defeated the combined forces of the Persian Empire, [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]] and Christian Arabs at the [[Battle of Firaz]]. The result of the battle was a decisive victory for Khalid, which led to most of Mesopotamia being annexed by the Muslims.
After this victory, Khalid left Mesopotamia to lead another [[Muslim conquest of Syria|campaign at Syria]] against the Roman Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia.
===Battle of the Bridge===
{{main|Battle of the Bridge}}
The Sassanids mounted a counterattack under Bahman Jadu, who led 9,000 Persians against 10,000 Arabs. The Persians won a major victory at the [[Battle of the Bridge]] against the Muslims in October 634, in which Abu Ubaid was killed in battle. The Persians lost 600 men, and the Arabs more than 4,000.
After a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in [[Levant|Syria]] at the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] in 636, the second caliph, [[Umar]], was able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sassanids.
=== The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah ===
{{main|Battle of al-Qādisiyyah}}
This was the decisive engagement that sealed the fate of the Sassanid empire. Intorno all'anno 636, [[Rostam Farrokhzad|Rostam Farrokhzād]], advisor and general for [[Yazdegerd III]] (''r''. 632–51) condusse un esercito di circa 60.000 uomini a [[Battaglia di al-Qādisiyyah|al-Qādisiyyah]], presso l'odierna città di [[Hilla]] in [[Iraq]]. Alcuni lo hanno criticato per la sua decisione di affrontare gli Arabi in casa loro — nel deserto — and surmised that the Persians could have held their own if they had stayed on the opposite bank of the Euphrates.
Il [[Califfo]] [[Umar]] mandò 36.000 uomini comandati da [[Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas|Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās]] contro l'esercito persiano. Fu così che iniziò la [[Battaglia di al-Qādisiyyah]], con i persiani che prevalsero in un primo momento, ma al terzo giorno di battaglia, the Muslims gained the upper hand. Il generale persiano [[Rostam Farrokhzād]] fu catturato e beheaded. Secondo alcune fonti, i Persiani persero 20.000 uomini mentre gli Arabi 8.500.
In seguito alla battaglia, l'esercito Arabo si diresse verso [[Ctesiphon]] (anche chiamata Madā'in in Arabo), la capitale dell'impero, che fu rapidamente evacuata da Yazdgird dopo un breve assedio. Dopo la presa della città, gli arabi continuarono il loro cammino verso est all'inseguimento di Yazdgird e delle sue truppe rimanenti. Within a short space of time, gli Arabi sconfissero un major Sāsānian counter-attack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at [[Qasr-e Shirin]], and Masabadhan. A partire dalla metà del VII secolo, gli Arabi controllarono tutta la Mesopotamia, inclusa l'area che è ora la provincia iraniana di [[Khuzestan]].
=Mario Bros.=
== Nemici ==
[[Image:Mariocard.JPG|thumb|right|Mario Bros. e-Reader card, features the three main enemies and the Marios]]
Ci sono vari tiri di nemici.
* Shellcreepers look like [[turtle]]s. They move slowly, and it only takes one hit to flip them over.
* Sidesteppers look like [[crab]]s. They move the fastest of all the pests, and it takes two hits to flip them over. After taking one hit, sidesteppers move faster.
* Fighterflies. They move by taking short hops, and can only be hit when touching the ground.
There are other enemies that do not need to be killed to clear the phase.
* Slipice (later renamed [[Freezie]]s). They move slowly. A hit instantly kills them. A new one is respawned in a few seconds if the previous one is killed. They can freeze a platform, turning it into ice, making it harder to maneuver Mario. If a platform is iced, it is returned to normal at the start of the next phase. If all three ice-eligible platforms are iced, no more slipices spawn for that phase.
* Icicles. They start appearing on Phase 16, after the third coin phase.
* Red Fireballs. They bounce diagonally. Mario can kill a fireball by hitting the ground as the fireball bounces; killing a fireball is unwise, as one soon respawns and moves faster. If the red fireball makes a complete circuit of the screen, it disappears and then respawns moving faster, effectively limiting the amount of time Mario can safely take to complete a phase. Normally, only one fireball is present; after the fifth coin phase, Phase 29, two fireballs are present simultaneously.
* White Fireballs. (sometimes called hurricanes) They move horizontally, spawning on one end of the screen and travelling to the other. They bounce at regular intervals, making it risky to jump over one.
== Phases ==
* Phase 1-2. Shellcreepers
* Phase 3. First coin phase; POW not replenished
* Phase 4. Sidesteppers
* Phase 5. Sidesteppers and shellcreepers; this is the only phase in the game that has both sidesteppers and shellcreepers.
* Phase 6. Fighterflies
* Phase 7. Fighterflies and sidesteppers
* Phase 8. Second coin phase; POW replenished
* Phase 9. Slipice are now present on every phase; fighterflies and shellcreepers.
* Phase 10, 11. Fighterflies and sidesteppers
* Phase 12-14. Same as 9-11, but the fireballs are more frequent
* Phase 15. Third coin phase; floors turn invisible; POW replenished
* Phase 16-21. Icicles are now present on every phase; otherwise same as 9-14. Fireball frequency is decreased on phases 16-18.
* Phase 22. Fourth coin phase; POW replenished
* Phase 23-28. Same as 16-21, but fireball frequency is maximum and icicles are more common.
* Phase 25. Phase counter replaced with a red "KO".
* Phase 29. Fifth coin phase; POW replenished
* Phase 30-35. Same as 23-28, but now two red fireballs appear on each phase.
* The same pattern of 7 phases repeats for the remainder of the game.
== Scoring ==
* Kicking off a pest: 800 points. If you can kick off multiple pests at one time, the value increases to 1600, 2400.
* Each coin is worth 800 points.
* Killing a slipice is worth 500 points.
* Killing a white fireball (hurricane) is worth 200 points. It is possible to kill it by hitting the floor just after it bounces.
* Killing a red fireball is worth 1000 points. This is usually a bad idea, as it immediately respawns and then moves faster.
* You can kill an icicle as it is forming, but this is not worth any points. If you touch an icicle after it has formed, but not dropped, Mario dies.
* Getting all 10 coins on the coin phase is worth 5000 the first time and 8000 later times.
* Flipping over a pest is worth 10 points.
== Strategy ==
Usually, you should try to clear the phase as quickly as possible. Risking a life for 800 extra points is not usually worth it. The danger level increases as the phase progresses, because the red fireball gets faster.
You should try to kick off as many pests as possible at the start of each phase. If you do not kill some of the pests quickly, you can get stuck in a situation where many lives are lost on one phase.
Use the POW only if you expect to lose a life, especially if you may lose control and lose multiple lives, due to too many pests onscreen. Try to save at least one charge left in the POW, because standing on the POW is a useful escape strategy. Remember when a coin phase is approaching, so you can freely use up the POW when you know it is about to recharge.
The enemies behave deterministically. You can anticipate where they will be. The white fireballs spawn at regular intervals based on where Mario is standing. Anticipate where you will need to hit a pest, and stand elsewhere to draw the white fireballs. Only icicles spawn randomly, and the time interval between icicles spawning and dropping is constant.
You can jump over a pest, or walk under a fighterfly. Jumping over a white fireball is possible, but only at certain parts of the screen. Jumping over a fireball should be a last resort.
If a sidestepper is about to wake up, hit it again to wake it up. This way, it won't change color and increase speed. It usually pays to let fighterflies speed up, because their slow speed makes it more likely that a fireball or icicle will kill you before the fighterfly is in position. Notice that the last enemy onscreen speeds up to maximum if it is a sidestepper or shellcreeper. It sometimes pays to flip over a fighterfly, knowing you won't be able to kick it off in time, just to speed it up.
== Comparison of versions ==
* The Japanese arcade version of ''Mario Bros.'' features an extra life every 30000 points, compared with only one free life per game in the English version.
* The [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] has all game features except icicles, but the animation of the original has been simplified; for instance, the turtles can not be seen 'naked'. It is more stingy with time on the coin phase. The NES does not have the invisible coin phase.
* The [[Atari 7800]] version is similar to the NES version, but with worse graphics.
* The [[Atari 5200]] version has far fewer colors than the [[Atari 7800]], but the animation is almost as detailed as the arcade version
* The [[Atari 2600]] version is the least faithful of all versions. Due to 2600 limitations, there is only one pest per floor at a time. You can kick off the slipice as it is icing a floor. Iced floors only heal at the coin phase.
* The [[Apple II]] version included the invisible coin phase and icicles. However, the game is slow due to system limitations.
* The [[Commodore 64]] version, published and ported by [[Atari]] in 1984, is extremely playable but includes the following bugs in two player mode: player two cannot jump player one; a player occasionally sticks on the top level when trying to bounce the other player; player two cannot knock player one from the wraparound side platform from beneath. In addition, the fireball animation has a graphical glitch, and there are several problems with the sound.
<gallery>
Image:apple_mariobros.gif|<br>[[Apple II]] ([[1983]])
Image:A2600_Mario_Bros.png|<br>[[Atari 2600]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_Mario_Bros.png|<br>[[Atari 5200]] ([[1983]])
Image:commodore_mariobros.gif|<br>[[Commodore 64]] ([[1984]])
Image:A7800_Mario_Bros..png|<Br>[[Atari 7800]] ([[1988]])
Image:NES_Mario_Bros.png|<br>[[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] ([[1986]])
</gallery>
==Trivia==
The musical introduction at the beginning of the game is the beginning of first movement of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s ''[[Eine kleine Nachtmusik]]''.
==External links==
* [http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?letter=M&game_id=8624 ''Mario Bros.''] entry on the [[Killer List of Videogames]]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/mario-bros MobyGames' entry for ''Mario Bros.'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Platform/Mario_Games/ Category at ODP]
=Super Mario Bros.=
The point where Mario continues depends on how far he ran through the level before dying; either from the very beginning, or a set ___location approximately halfway through the level.
[[Image:Goomba Group Strategy.png|right|thumb|190px|Grey [[Goomba|Goombas]] in world 8-4.]]
[[Image:SuperMarioBrosSNESTitle.png|thumb|190px|The title screen of ''Super Mario Bros.'' from ''[[Super Mario All-Stars]]'' on the SNES]]
In early 2004, Nintendo rereleased the game on the [[Game Boy Advance]] in Japan as part of their Famicom Minis collection and in the U.S. as part of the [[Classic NES Series]]. Unlike previous re-releases, these versions contain no graphical updates. Differences between this and the original are that the screen images appear a bit squashed, due to the smaller [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]] screen, and the high score is saved to the [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]. In 2005, Nintendo released this game again for the GBA as part of its 20th Anniversary with a special edition, selling approximately 876,000 units [http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=6766].
The reason for this is because the pipe at the end of the level leads to the very beginning, instead of dry land, and therefore, the level loops, or repeats itself. The name was created by a glitch, and since it is not a normal level, the name is literally (nothing)-1, creating the effect of -1.
warp pipes without an onscreen value quickly. More "glitch" levels are available, but only through special memory-modifying tools such as the [[Game Genie]].
World 36 in the Japanese [[Famicom Disk System]] version of the game is considerably different and has three levels, after which the player is returned to the title screen as though he or she completed the game. This glitch has been fixed in the ''Super Mario All-Stars'' remake.
=== Jumping the flag ===
Dating from the time of the original ''Super Mario Bros.'' release, [[urban legend]] claimed that in levels 3-3 and 7-2 it is possible to jump over the flag at the end of the level by exploiting [[pulley]]s. The claim was for the most part unsubstantiated until 1999 when a [[NESticle]] movie demonstrating the capability was publicly released. [http://www.princeton.edu/~jdonald/emulation/flagpole.html] When the engine was redone for the SNES game ''Super Mario All-Stars'', this ability was retained while found less difficult to perform (and, interestingly, the -1 bug was removed). Creators of [[tool-assisted speedrun|tool-assisted console video]]s have also demonstrated (in the original NES game) that the flagpole can be surmounted on several other levels including 1-1. This is done by exploiting a glitch to induce a [[Koopa Troopa]] to walk across the bottom edge of the screen and then using it for an extra bounce over the pole. However, jumping the flag is not very useful as the level goes on forever and is completely empty after this. There is nothing to do but to keep running forward until Mario dies from Time Over. There are also many levels in [[Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels]] in which jumping over the flag is possible.
===Little Fiery Mario===
Internal to the game, Mario's powerup state is recorded in two independent variables; one describes size (0=regular; 1=super) and the other tracks the 'upgrade state' (0=need mushroom; 1=need flower; 2=has flower). The 'size' decides the sprite (small on 0; big on 1) used for Mario; the 'upgrade state' decides what powerup will come out of a block (mushroom on 0; flower on 1 or 2) and what will happen when Mario is hit (die on 0; switch 'size' and clear 'upgrade state' on 1).
These states can be knocked out of synchronization. The game checks for all sprite collisions, knocks the 'upgrade state' to 0 if it hits, and switches size only when all checks are done. If Mario's sprite strikes the King Koopa sprite and the bridge release sprite in one frame, the game will register the collision between Mario and Koopa, knock the 'upgrade state' to 0, register the collision between Mario and the bridge release, and jump into the level complete loop that causes Mario to walk to the right -- and never switches the 'size' variable.
If Mario was naturally large (state 1 or 2, size 1) when he hit the switch he will stay large (state 0, size 1). If he strikes an enemy he will die (because his 'upgrade state' is 0), but he can break blocks. If he gets a mushroom, he will shrink and be unable to hit blocks; if he is hit now, he will grow again. If he gets a fire flower, his pallette will be changed and he will be able to shoot (but the game will use the large image for shooting; it will, however, keep Mario's small feet if Mario is moving.) Mario will now be Little Fiery Mario.
If Mario was naturally small (state 0, size 0) when he hit the switch he will appear to die but the level will still be beat and he will not lose a life. If Mario was unnaturally small (state 1 or 2, size 0) when he hit the switch (that is, if he does this trick twice), he will revert to his normal form. When Mario dies his size is set small and his state is set unupgraded, no matter how he died or what his state was before.
Using the third part only of a 3-code Game Genie code for "Always Stay Big" will produce similar results (the code is SZLIVO). As long as Mario has gained a power-up, he will become small when hit, then grow when hit a second time. This is a much simpler way to view the "Little Fiery Mario" quirk.
This glitch, originally discovered by gamers Grady Haynes and Tom Shoemake, appears to have been fixed in the ''Super Mario All-Stars'' version, though you can still see it with a cheating device.
== Trivia ==
[[Image:NESClassicGBA SuperMarioBros1boxart 160h.jpg|right|frame|The NES version of ''Super Mario Bros.'' was re-released in 2004 on the Game Boy Advance as part of the [[Classic NES Series]].]]
=== Super Mario and the Game Genie ===
It is a well-known phenomenon among those who possessed a real [[Game Genie]] that by some quirk in how the original ''Super Mario Bros.'' was programmed, the game has proven to be extremely receptive to Game Genie codes, responding with far more effects than any other known NES game. Hundreds (possibly thousands) of codes have been generated, and although large lists of them exist, none of them has proven truly comprehensive.
== Altri progetti ==
{{interprogetto|q}}
== Collegamenti esterni ==
* [http://www.smbhq.com/ Super Mario Bros. Headquarters]
* [http://www.nesfiles.com/NES/Super_Mario_Bros/Super_Mario_Bros.asp Super Mario Bros at The NES Files]
* [http://www.toadscastle.net/ toadscastle.net]
* [http://www.classicgaming.com/tmk/ The Mushroom Kingdom]
* [http://smclone.sourceforge.net/ Secret Maryo Chronicles], a [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]'ed clone using similar characters and built with [[Simple DirectMedia Layer]] and [[C++]]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/mmario/ Mega Mario], a [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]'ed clone using similar characters and built with C++
* [http://supertux.berlios.de/ SuperTux], a [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]'ed [[SDL]]-based game with similar game-play starring [[Tux]] the [[Linux]] penguin ([[SuperTux|Wikipedia entry for SuperTux]])
* [http://janis.or.jp/users/segabito/JavaScriptMaryo.html Super Maryo World], full clone of Super Mario Brothers in Javascript
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