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|nome=Psittaciformi <ref>{{cite journal |last=Waterhouse |first=David M. |year=2006 |title=Parrots in a nutshell: The fossil record of Psittaciformes (Aves) |journal=Historical Biology |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=223–234 |doi=10.1080/08912960600641224}}</ref>
|statocons=
|immagine=[[File:Agapornis roseicollis -Peach-faced Lovebird pet on perch.jpg|230px]]
|didascalia=''[[Agapornis roseicollis]]''
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|regno=[[Animalia]]
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|phylum=[[Chordata]]
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|superordine=
|ordine=
<span style="font-variant: small-caps"><small>[[Johann Georg Wagler|Wagler]], [[1830]]</small></span>
|sottordine=
|infraordine=
|superfamiglia=
|famiglia=
|sottofamiglia=
|tribù=
|sottotribù=
|genere=
|sottogenere=
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|sottospecie=
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|biautore=
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|sinonimi?=
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|suddivisione=[[Famiglia (tassonomia)|Famiglie]]
|suddivisione_testo=
* [[Cacatuidae]]
* [[Psittacidae]]
* [[Strigopidae]]
}}
[[File:Ara ararauna -eating -Wilhelma Zoo-8-2rc.jpg|right|thumb|[[Blue-and-yellow Macaw]] eating a walnut held by a foot]]
Gli '''Psittaciformi''' <ref name="zoonomen">{{cite web |url=http://www.zoonomen.net/avtax/psit.html |title=Zoological Nomenclature Resource: Psittaciformes (Version 9.013) |date=2008-12-29 |publisher=www.zoonomen.net}}</ref> ('''Psittaciformes''' <ref>{{cite web |title=Psittacine |work=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |year=2000 |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/21/P0632100.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070827104100/http://www.bartleby.com/61/21/P0632100.html |archivedate=2007-08-27 |accessdate=2007-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Psittacine |work=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Inc |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/ |accessdate=2007-09-09}}</ref> <span style="font-variant: small-caps"><small>[[Johann Georg Wagler|Wagler]], [[1830]]</small></span>) sono un [[ordine (tassonomia)|ordine]] di [[uccelli]] che comprende circa 372 [[specie]] di pappagalli suddivise in 86 [[genere (tassonomia)|generi]]; vivono soprattutto nelle regioni calde e tropicali. L'ordine viene suddiviso in tre [[famiglia (tassonomia)|famiglie]]: gli [[Psittacidae|Psittacidi]] (pappagalli «veri»), i [[Cacatuidae|Cacatuidi]] (cacatua) e gli [[Strigopidae|Strigopidi]] (pappagalli della Nuova Zelanda) <ref name="Christidis">{{cite book |title=Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds |author=Christidis L, Boles WE |year=2008 |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |___location=Canberra |isbn=9780643065116 |page=200}}</ref> . Generalmente i pappagalli hanno una distribuzione pantropicale, ma alcune specie si incontrano anche nelle regioni temperate dell'emisfero australe. La maggiore [[Biodiversità|diversità]] di specie si incontra in [[Sudamerica]] ed [[Australasia]].
Tra i più importanti aspetti che caratterizzano i pappagalli vi sono il robusto [[becco]] ricurvo, la posizione eretta che mantengono quando sono appollaiati, le zampe robuste e i piedi [[Zigodattilia|zigodattili]] muniti di forti unghie. La maggior parte delle specie hanno un colore prevalentemente verde, spesso unito ad altri colori brillanti, ma altre sono variopinte. I cacatua variano in colorazione dal bianco al nero ed esibiscono una cresta mobile di penne sulla sommità della testa. In quasi tutti i pappagalli il [[dimorfismo sessuale]] è scarso o assente. Per quanto riguarda la lunghezza hanno le dimensioni più variabili tra tutti gli uccelli.
L'alimentazione dei pappagalli è composta soprattutto da semi, noci, frutta, boccioli e altre sostanze vegetali. Poche specie mangiano anche ratti e vermi e i Lorini sono specializzati nel mangiare [[nettare (botanica)|nettare]] dei fiori e frutti morbidi. Quasi tutti i pappagalli nidificano nelle cavità degli alberi (o, in cattività, nelle scatole-nido) e depongono uova bianche da cui sgusciano piccoli inetti.
I pappagalli, insieme a [[Corvidae|corvi, cornacchie, ghiandaie e gazze]], sono tra gli uccelli più intelligenti e l'abilità di alcune specie nell'imitare la voce umana li ha resi molto popolari come animali domestici. La cattura di esemplari selvatici per il mercato degli [[animale da compagnia|animali da compagnia]], la caccia, la [[deforestazione]] e la compezione con le [[specie naturalizzata|specie invasive]] ha notevolmente diminuito il numero dei pappagalli selvatici e questi animali stanno tuttora subendo uno sfruttamento da parte dell'uomo maggiore di quello di ogni altro gruppo di uccelli <ref>Snyder, N; McGowan, P; Gilardi, J; & A Grajal (2000), ''[http://www.parrots.org/index.php/ourpublication/papfiles/ Parrots: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 2000-2004]''. Chapter 1. vii. [[IUCN]] ISBN 2-8317-0504-5. Chapter 1. vii.</ref> . Le recenti misure di conservazione volte a proteggere l'habitat di alcune tra le più importanti specie di pappagallo sono servite anche a proteggere molte specie meno note che vivono nello stesso ecosistema <ref name="Chapter2p12">Snyder, N; McGowan, P; Gilardi, J; & A Grajal (2000), ''[http://www.parrots.org/index.php/ourpublication/papfiles/ Parrots: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 2000-2004]''. Chapter 1. vii. [[IUCN]] ISBN 2-8317-0504-5. Chapter 2. page 12.</ref> .
==Evoluzione e sistematica==
===Origini ed evoluzione===
Le ricerche che cercano di svelare l'origine dei pappagalli sono tuttora in corso. La maggiore diversità di specie che si incontra in [[Sudamerica]] ed [[Australasia]] sembra indicare che l'[[ordine (tassonomia)|ordine]] degli Psittaciformi abbia avuto origine nel [[Gondwana]] e come maggiore centro di diffusione l'[[Australasia]] <ref name="Wright" /> . La scarsità dei resti fossili di uccello, tuttavia, rende molto difficile valutare la certezza di questa ipotesi.
Si ritiene che il più antico fossile di pappagallo, risalente al [[Cretaceo superiore]] (circa 70 milioni di anni fa), sia un singolo frammento, lungo 1002 mm, del ramo inferiore di un grosso becco ritrovato nei depositi della Formazione di Lance Creek nella [[Contea di Niobrara]] ([[Wyoming]]) <ref>Stidham T. (1998) "A lower jaw from a Cretaceous parrot" ''Nature'' '''396''': 29–30</ref> . Vari studiosi, tuttavia, ritengono con certezza che questo fossile non appartenga a un uccello, ma ad un teropode cenagnatide o ad un altro [[dinosauro]] non-[[uccelli|aviario]] munito di un [[becco]] simile a quello di un uccello <ref>Dyke GJ, Mayr G. (1999) "Did parrots exist in the Cretaceous period?" ''Nature'' '''399''': 317–318</ref><ref>Waterhouse DM. (2006) "Parrots in a nutshell: The fossil record of Psittaciformes (Aves)" ''Historical Biology'' '''18(2)''': 227–238</ref> .
Al giorno d'oggi si ritiene generalmente che gli Psittaciformi o gli antenati che hanno in comune con altri uccelli fossero già presenti al periodo della [[Estinzione di massa#Cretaceo-Terziario (circa 65 milioni di anni fa)|scomparsa dei dinosauri]], circa 65 milioni di anni fa. Se fosse così, i pappagalli probabilmente non sono creature che [[evoluzione|svilupparono]] [[Autapomorfia|autapomorfie]] [[Morfologia (biologia)|morfologiche]], ma i discendenti di uccelli arboricoli generalisti abbastanza simili (ma non necessariamente imparentati) ai nittibi e ai bocca di rana odierni.
Il luogo di origine dei primi pappagalli fossili è l'[[Europa]]. Il reperto più antico è un osso alare di ''Mopsitta tanta'' scoperto in Danimarca e risalente a 54 milioni di anni fa <ref name="Waterhouse2008">{{cite journal
|author=Waterhouse, D.M.
|coauthors=Lindow, B.E.K.; Zelenkov, N.; Dyke, G.J.
|year=2008
|url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120083576/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
|title=Two new fossil parrots (Psittaciformes) from the Lower Eocene Fur Formation of Denmark
|journal=Palaeontology
|volume=51
|pages=575–582
|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00777.x}}</ref> . All'epoca la regione aveva un clima tropicale dovuto al cosiddetto «Massimo Termico Paleocene-Eocene».
Fossili di età successiva risalgono all'[[Eocene]], periodo iniziato circa 50 milioni di anni fa. Alcuni fossili quasi completi di uccelli simili a pappagalli sono stati rinvenuti in [[Inghilterra]] e [[Germania]] <ref>Dyke GJ, Cooper JH (2000) "A new psittaciform bird from the London clay (Lower Eocene) of England" ''Palaeontology'' '''43''': 271–285</ref> . Sembra più probabile, però, che questi fossili non appartengano ai diretti antenati dei pappagalli moderni, ma piuttosto a linee evolutive loro imparentate che si evolvettero nell'emisfero boreale e scomparvero senza lasciare discendenti. Probabilmente non sono quindi «[[Anello mancante|anelli mancanti]]» tra pappagalli ancestrali e moderni, ma piuttosto linee di Psittaciformi che si evolvettero parallelamente ai pappagalli veri e ai cacatua, sviluppando le loro peculiari autapomorfie:
* ''Psittacopes'' (Eocene inferiore/medio di Geiseltal, Germania) – forma basale?
* ''Serudaptus'' – pseudasturide o psittacide?
* '''Pseudasturidae''' (o più correttamente Halcyornithidae)
** ''Pseudasturides''- in passato ''Pseudastur''
* '''Vastanavidae'''
** ''Vastanavis'' (Eocene inferiore di Vastan, India)
* '''[[Quercypsitta|Quercypsittidae]]'''
** ''[[Quercypsitta]]'' (Eocene superiore)
[[File:AmazonFeathers.jpg|thumb|right|The feathers of a [[Yellow-headed Amazon]]. The blue component of the green coloration is due to light scattering while the yellow is due to pigment.]]
The earliest records of modern parrots date to about 23–20 mya and are also from Europe. Subsequently, the fossil record—again, mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognizable as belonging to parrots of modern type. The Southern Hemisphere does not have nearly as rich a fossil record for the period of interest as the Northern, and contains no known parrot-like remains earlier than the early to middle [[Miocene]], around 20 mya. At this point, however, is found the first unambiguous parrot fossil (as opposed to a parrot-like one), an upper jaw which is indistinguishable from that of modern [[cockatoo]]s. A few modern genera are tentatively dated to a Miocene origin, but their unequivocal record stretches back only some 5 million years (see genus articles for more).
The named fossil genera of parrots are probably all in the Psittacidae or close to its ancestry:
* ''[[Archaeopsittacus]]'' (Late Oligocene/Early Miocene)
* ''[[Xenopsitta]]'' (Early Miocene of Czechia)<!-- BelgJZool134:47 -->
* Psittacidae gen. et spp. indet. (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand) - several species<!-- JSystPaleontol5:1 -->
* ''[[Bavaripsitta]]'' (Middle Miocene of Steinberg, Germany)<!-- *BelgJZool134:47 -->
* Psittacidae gen. et sp. indet. (Middle Miocene of France) - erroneously placed in ''Pararallus dispar'', includes ''"Psittacus" lartetianus''<!-- BelgJZool134:47 -->
Some [[Paleogene]] fossils are not unequivocally accepted to be of psittaciforms:
* ''[[Palaeopsittacus]]'' (Early – Middle Eocene of NW Europe) - caprimulgiform (podargid?) or quercypsittid?<!-- Palaeontology43:271 -->
* ''"[[Precursor (bird)|Precursor]]"'' (Early Eocene) – part of this apparent [[chimera (genetics)|chimera]] seems to be of a pseudasturid or psittacid
* ''[[Pulchrapollia]]'' (Early Eocene) – includes ''"Primobucco" olsoni'' - psittaciform (pseudasturid or psittacid)?<!-- *Palaeontology43:271 -->
===Phylogeny===
{{userboxtop| toptext= }}{{clade|style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%
||label1=Parrots
|1={{clade
|label1=
|1={{clade
|label1=
|1=[[Psittacidae]] [[File:Rose-ringed Parakeet (Male) I IMG 9141.jpg|75px]]
|label2=
|2=[[Cacatuidae]] [[File:Cacatua galerita -perching on branch -crest-8a-2c.jpg|75px]]
}}
|label2=
|2=[[Strigopidae]] [[File:Kaka (Nestor meridionalis)- Wellington -NZ-8-2c.jpg|75px]]
}}
|label2=
|2=Other birds
}}<small>Phylogentic relationship between the three parrot families based on the available literature<ref name="Wright"/><ref name=deKloet/><ref name=tokita/></small>
{{userboxbottom}}
The [[phylogeny]] of the parrots is still under investigation. The classifications as presented reflects the current status, which is disputed and therefore subject to change when new studies resolve some of the open questions. For that reason, this classification should be treated as preliminary.
The Psittaciformes consist of three main lineages: '''[[Strigopidae]]''', '''Psittacidae''' ([[true parrots]]) and '''Cacatuidae''' ([[cockatoos]]). In the past, the '''[[Strigopidae]]''' were considered part of the '''Psittacidae''', but recent studies place this group of New Zealand species at the basis of the parrot tree next to the remaining members of the Psittacidae as well as all members of the Cacatuidae.<ref name="Wright">{{cite journal |title=A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous |journal=Mol Biol Evol |year=2008 |first=T.F. |last=Wright |coauthors=Schirtzinger E. E., Matsumoto T., Eberhard J. R., Graves G. R., Sanchez J. J., Capelli S., Muller H., Scharpegge J., Chambers G. K. & Fleischer R. C. |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=2141–2156 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msn160 |url= |accessdate= |pmid=18653733 |pmc=2727385}}</ref><ref name="deKloet">{{cite journal |last=de Kloet |first=RS |coauthors=de Kloet SR |year=2005 |title=The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: Sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes. |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=36 |pages=706–721 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013 |pmid=16099384 |issue=3}}</ref><ref name="tokita">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1525-142X.2007.00199.x |last=Tokita |first=M |coauthors=Kiyoshi T and Armstrong KN |year=2007 |title=Evolution of craniofacial novelty in parrots through developmental modularity and heterochrony. |journal=Evolution & Development |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=590–601 |pmid=17976055}}</ref>
The Cacatuidae are quite distinct, having a movable head crest, a different arrangement of the [[carotid]] arteries, a [[gall bladder]], differences in the skull bones, and lack the [[Dyck texture]] feathers which, in the Psittacidae, scatters light in such a way as to produce the vibrant colours of so many parrots. Colourful feathers with high levels of [[psittacofulvin]] resist feather-degrading [[Bacillus licheniformis]] better than white ones<ref>Edward H. Burtt, Max R. Schroeder, Lauren A. Smith, Jenna E. Sroka, Kevin J. McGraw (2010): Colourful parrot feathers resist bacterial degradation, Biology Letters, The Royal Society, doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0716.</ref>.
[[Lories and lorikeets|Lorikeets]] were previously regarded as a third family, Loriidae,<ref name="Forshaw78">Forshaw, Joseph M. & Cooper, William T. (1978): ''Parrots of the World'' (2nd ed). Landsdowne Editions, Melbourne Australia ISBN 0-7018-0690-7</ref> but studies using large amounts of DNA data place the group in the middle of the Psittacidae family, with as closest relatives the fig parrots (two of the three genera of the tribe [[Cyclopsittacini]], subfamily Psittacinae) and the [[Budgerigar]] (tribe Melopsittacini, subfamily [[Platycercinae]]).<ref name="Wright" /><ref name="deKloet" /><ref name="tokita" />
===Systematics===
The following classification is a version in which several subfamilies are recognized. Molecular data (see above) suggests that several subfamilies might indeed be valid and perhaps even be elevated to family rank, but the arrangement of tribes in these is not well resolved at present.
[[File:Rainbow Lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus) -on fence.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rainbow Lorikeet]] (''T. h. moluccanus'') perching on a garden fence in Australia]]
[[File:ParrotSkelLyd.jpg|thumb|Skeleton of a parrot]]
'''Family [[Strigopidae]]''': The [[New Zealand]] parrots.
:* Tribe [[Nestor (genus)|Nestorini]]: 1 genus with only 2 living species, the [[Kea]] and [[Kākā]] of the New Zealand region.
:* Tribe [[Kakapo|Strigopini]]: The flightless, critically endangered [[Kakapo]] of New Zealand.
'''Family [[Cacatuidae]]''': Cockatoos
* Subfamily [[Microglossinae]]
* Subfamily [[Calyptorhynchinae]]: dark cockatoos
* Subfamily [[Cacatuinae]]: white cockatoos
'''Family [[Psittacidae]]''': true parrots
* Subfamily [[Arinae]]: Neotropical parrots, about 160 species in some 30 genera. Probably 2 distinct lineages:<ref name="deKloet" /><ref name="Miyaki98">{{cite journal |last=Miyaki |first=Y. |last2=Matioli |first2=R. |last3=Burke |first3=T. |last4=Wajntal |first4=A. |title=Parrot evolution and paleogeographical events: Mitochondrial DNA evidence |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=544–551 |year=1998 |url=http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/5/544.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref>
* Subfamily [[Lories and lorikeets|Loriinae]]: Around a dozen genera with some 50 species of lorikeets and lories, centered in New Guinea, spreading to Australia, Indonesia, and the islands of the south Pacific.
* Subfamily [[Micropsittinae]]: 6 species of pygmy parrot, all in a single genus.
* Subfamily [[Psittacinae]]
** Tribe [[Cyclopsittacini]]: fig parrots, 3 genera, all from New Guinea or nearby.
** Tribe [[Polytelini]]: three genera from Australia and the [[Wallacea]] that were in the past grouped with the broad-tailed parrots.
** Tribe [[Psittrichadini]]: A single species, [[Pesquet's Parrot]].
** Tribe [[Psittacini]]: Afrotropical parrots, about a dozen species in 3 genera.
** Tribe [[Psittaculini]]: Paleotropic psittaculine parrots, nearly 70 living species in 12 genera, distributed from India to Australasia.
* Subfamily [[Platycercinae]]: Broad-tailed parrots; nearly 30 species in roughly one dozen genera.
** Tribe [[Melopsittacini]]: one genus with one species, the [[Budgerigar]].
** Tribe [[Neophemini]]: two small genera of parrots.
** Tribe [[Pezoporini]]: one genus of parrots with two quite distinct species.
** Tribe [[Platycercini]]: [[Rosella]]s and relatives; around 20 species in 8 genera.
===Other lists===
* [[list of parrots|A list of all parrots]] sortable by common or binomial name, about 350 [[species]].
** [[Cockatoo#Family Cacatuidae|Taxonomic list of Cacatuidae species]], 21 species in 7 [[genus|genera]]
** [[list of parrots (family)|Taxonomic list of true parrots]] which provides the sequence of Psittacidae genera and species following a traditional two-subfamily approach, as in the taxobox above, about 330 species.
** [[List of Strigopidae]]
* [[List of macaws]]
* [[List of Amazon parrots]]
* [[List of Aratinga parakeets]]
==Distribution==
[[File:Cachaña.jpg|thumb|right|Most parrot species are tropical but a few species, like this [[Austral Parakeet]], range deeply into temperate zones.]]
Parrots are found on all tropical and subtropical continents including [[Australia]] and the islands of the [[Pacific Ocean]], South Asia, [[southeast Asia]], southern regions of [[North America]], [[South America]] and [[Africa]]. Some Caribbean and Pacific islands are home to [[endemic species]]. By far the greatest number of parrot species come from [[Australasia]] and South America. The lories and lorikeets range from [[Sulawesi]] and the [[Philippines]] in the north to Australia and across the Pacific as far as [[French Polynesia]], with the greatest diversity being found in and around [[New Guinea]]. The subfamily [[Arinae]] encompasses all the Neotropical parrots, including the Amazons, macaws and conures, and range from northern [[Mexico]] and the [[Bahamas]] to [[Tierra del Fuego]] in the southern tip of South America. The pygmy parrots, subfamily [[Micropsittinae]], are a small genus restricted to New Guinea. The subfamily Nestorinae are three species of aberrant parrots from New Zealand. The broad-tailed parrots, subfamily Platycercinae, are restricted to Australia, New Zealand and Pacific islands as far as [[Fiji]]. The final true parrot subfamily, Psittacinae, includes a range of species from Australia and New Guinea to the species found in South Asia and Africa. The centre of cockatoo biodiversity is Australia and New Guinea, although some species reach the [[Solomon Islands]] (and one species formerly occurred in [[New Caledonia]]),<ref name="Steadman" /> [[Indonesia]] and the Philippines.
Several parrot species enter the cool, [[temperate]] regions of South America and [[New Zealand]]. One species, the [[Carolina Parakeet]] existed in temperate North America, but was hunted to extinction in the early 20th century. Numerous species have been [[introduced species|introduced]] in areas with temperate climates, and have established stable populations in several states of the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Spain]].<ref name="Butler"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sol|first=Daniel|coauthors=Santos, David M. ; Feria, Elías & Jordi Clavell|year=1997|title=Habitat Selection by the Monk Parakeet during Colonization of a New Area in Spain|url=http://jstor.org/stable/1370222 |journal=Condor|volume=99|issue=1|pages=39–46|doi=10.2307/1370222 }}</ref>
While a few parrot species are wholly [[sedentary]] or fully [[bird migration|migratory]], the majority fall somewhere between the two, making poorly understood regional movements, some species adopting an entirely nomadic lifestyle.<ref name="collar" />
==Morphology==
[[File:Glossy black cockatoo male kobble08.JPG|thumb|[[Glossy Black Cockatoo]] showing the parrot's strong bill, clawed feet, and sideways positioned eyes]]
[[Extant species]] range in size from the [[Buff-faced Pygmy Parrot]], at under 10 g (0.35 oz.) in weight and 8 cm (3.2 inches) in length, to the [[Hyacinth Macaw]], at 1.0 meter (3.3 feet) in length, and the [[Kakapo]], at 4.0 kg (8.8 lbs) in weight. Amongst the families, the three [[Strigopidae]] species are all large parrots, and the cockatoos tend to be large birds as well. The Psittacidae parrots are far more variable, ranging the full spectrum of sizes shown by the family.
The most obvious physical characteristic that characterises parrots is their strong, curved, broad [[Beak|bill]]. The upper mandible is prominent, curves downward, and comes to a point. It is not fused to the skull, which allows it to move independently, and contributes to the tremendous biting pressure these birds are able to exert. The lower mandible is shorter, with a sharp, upward facing cutting edge, which moves against the flat portion of the upper mandible in an anvil-like fashion. Seed eating parrots have a strong [[tongue]] which helps to manipulate seeds or position nuts in the bill so that the mandibles can apply an appropriate cracking force. The head is large, with eyes positioned sideways, which limits binocular vision, but greatly enhances peripheral vision.
Cockatoo species have a mobile [[crest (bird)|crest]] of feathers on the top of their heads which can be raised for display, and retracted. No other parrots can do so, but the Pacific lorikeets in the genera ''[[Vini]]'' and ''[[Phigys]]'' are able to ruffle the feathers of the crown and nape. The predominant colour of [[plumage]] in parrots is green, though most species have some red or another colour in small quantities. Cockatoos are the main exception to this, having lost the green and blue plumage colours in their evolutionary history they are now predominately black or white with some red, pink or yellow. Strong [[sexual dimorphism]] in plumage is not typical amongst the parrots, with some notable exceptions, the most striking being the [[Eclectus Parrot]].
==Behavior==
There are numerous difficulties in studying wild parrots, as they are difficult to catch and once caught they are difficult to mark. Most wild bird studies rely on [[bird ringing|rings]] (or bands) or some form of wing tag, but parrots will chew them off.<ref name="collar" /> The parrots also tend to range widely and as a consequence there are many gaps in science's knowledge of their behavior.
Parrots have a strong, direct flight. Most species spend most of their time perched or climbing in tree canopies. They often use their bills for climbing by gripping or hooking on branches and other supports. On the ground parrots often walk with a rolling gait.
===Diet===
[[File:Yellow-tailed Black-Cockatoo kobble08.ogg|thumb|300px|right|A [[Yellow-tailed Black Cockatoo]] using its strong bill to search for grubs]]
The [[food|diet]] of parrots consists of [[seed]]s, [[fruit]], [[nectar]], [[pollen]], [[bud]]s, and sometimes [[arthropod|insects]] e.g. cockroaches and to a lesser degree animal prey. Without question the most important of these to most true parrots and cockatoos are seeds. The [[evolution]] of the large and powerful [[beak|bill]] can be explained primarily as an adaptation to opening and consuming seeds. All [[true parrots]] except the [[Pesquet's Parrot]] employ the same method to obtain the seed from the husk; the seed is held between the mandibles and the lower mandible crushes the husk, whereupon the seed is rotated in the bill and the remaining husk is removed.<ref name="collar">Collar N (1997) "Family Psittacidae (Parrots)" in ''[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]] Volume 4; Sandgrouse to Cuckoos'' (eds del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J) Lynx Edicions:Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-22-9</ref> A foot is sometimes used to help holding large seeds in place. Parrots are seed [[predator]]s rather than seed [[Biological dispersal|dispersers]]; and in many cases where species are recorded as consuming fruit they are only eating the fruit to get at the seed. As seeds often have [[poison]]s to protect them, parrots are careful to remove seed coats and other fruit parts which are chemically well defended, prior to ingestion. Many species in the Americas, Africa, and Papua New Guinea consume [[clay]] which both releases minerals and absorbs toxic compounds from the gut.<ref>Diamond, J (1999). "Evolutionary biology: Dirty eating for healthy living" ''Nature'' '''400'''(6740): 120–121</ref>
[[File:Parrot clay lick.jpg|thumb|Parrots at a clay lick in [[Ecuador]]. Consuming clay neutralises toxins in the diet.]]
The [[lories and lorikeets]], [[Swift Parrot]] and [[Philippine Hanging Parrot]] are primarily nectar and pollen consumers, and have [[tongue]]s with brush tips to collect this source of food, as well as some specialized gut adaptations to accommodate this diet.<ref>Gartrell B, Jones S, Brereton R & Astheimer L (2000) "Morphological Adaptations to Nectarivory of the Alimentary Tract of the Swift Parrot ''Lathamus discolor''". ''Emu'' '''100'''(4) 274–279</ref> Many other species also consume nectar as well when it becomes available.
In addition to feeding on seeds and flowers, some parrot species will prey on animals. [[Golden-winged Parakeet]]s prey on water [[snail]]s, and famously the [[Kea]]s of [[New Zealand]] will kill juvenile [[Procellariidae|petrels]] and even attack and indirectly kill adult sheep.<ref name="nhnz">[http://www.nhnz.tv/view_program_catalog/progID/169/ Kea – Mountain Parrot], [[NHNZ]]. (1 hour documentary)</ref> Another New Zealand parrot, the [[Antipodes Island Parakeet]], enters the burrows of nesting [[Grey-backed Storm-petrel]]s and kills the incubating adults.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Greene |first=Terry |title=Aspects of the ecology of Antipodes Island Parakeet (''Cyanoramphus unicolor'') and Reischek's Parakeet (''C. novaezelandiae hochstetten'') on Antipodes Island |journal=Notornis |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=301–310 |publisher=Ornithological Society of New Zealand |date=1999 November/December |url=http://www.notornis.org.nz/free_issues/Notornis_46-1999/Notornis_46_2_301.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> Some [[cockatoo]]s and the [[Kākā]] will also excavate branches and wood to obtain [[Larva|grubs]].
===Breeding===
Although there are a few exceptions, parrots are [[monogamous]] breeders which nest in cavities and hold no [[territory (animal)|territories]] other than their nesting sites.<ref name="collar" /><ref name="Rowley">Rowley I(1997) "Family Cacatuidae (Cockatoos)" in ''[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]] Volume 4; Sandgrouse to Cuckoos'' (eds del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J) Lynx Edicions:Barcelona. ISBN 84-87334-22-9</ref> The pair bonds of the parrots and cockatoos are strong and the pair will remain close even during the non-breeding season, even if they join larger flocks. As with many birds pair bond formation is preceded by courtship displays; these are relatively simple in the case of cockatoos. In Psittacidae parrots common breeding displays, usually undertaken by the male, include slow deliberate steps known as a "parade" or "stately walk" and the "eye-blaze", where the pupil of the eye constricts to reveal the edge of the iris.<ref name="collar" /> Allopreening is used by the pair to help maintain the bond. [[Helpers at the nest|Cooperative breeding]], where birds other than the breeding pair help the pair raise the young and is common in some bird families, is extremely rare in parrots, and has only unambiguously been demonstrated in the [[Golden Parakeet]] (which may also exhibit [[polyamory|polyamorous]] or group breeding system with multiple females contributing to the clutch).<ref>{{cite journal|last= Oren|first=David C.|coauthors= Novaes, Fernando|year=1986|title=Observations on the golden parakeet ''Aratinga guarouba'' in Northern Brazil |journal=Biological Conservation|volume=36|issue=4|pages=329–337 |doi = 10.1016/0006-3207(86)90008-X }}</ref>
[[File:Forpus xanthopterygius -tree hole -Brazil-8.jpg|thumb|left|The vast majority of parrots are, like this [[Blue-winged Parrotlet]], cavity nesters.]]
Only the [[Monk Parakeet]] and five species of ''[[Agapornis]]'' lovebird build nests in trees,<ref>Eberhard J (1998) "Evolution of nest-building behavior in ''[[Agapornis]]'' parrots" ''Auk'' '''115'''(2): 455–464</ref> and three Australian and New Zealand ground parrots nest on the ground. All other parrots and cockatoos nest in cavities, either tree hollows or cavities dug into cliffs, banks or the ground. The use of holes in cliffs is more common in the Americas. Many species will use [[termite]] nests, possibly as it reduces the conspicuousness of the nesting site or because it creates favourable microclimates.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sanchez-Martinez|first=Tania|coauthors=Katherine Renton|year=2009|title=Availability and selection of arboreal termitaria as nest-sites by Orange-fronted Parakeets ''Aratinga canicularis'' in conserved and modified landscapes in Mexico|journal=Ibis|volume=151|issue=2|pages=311–320|doi = 10.1111/j.1474-919X.2009.00911.x}}</ref> In most cases both parents will participate in the nest excavation. The length of the burrow varies with species, but is usually between 0.5–2 m in length. The nests of cockatoos are often lined with sticks, wood chips and other plant material. In the larger species of parrot and cockatoo the availability of nesting holes can be limited and this can lead to intense competition for them both within the species and between species, as well as with other bird families. The intensity of this competition can limit breeding success in some cases.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Heinsohn|first=Robert|coauthors=Murphy, Stephen & Legge, Sarah|year=2003|title=Overlap and competition for nest holes among eclectus parrots, palm cockatoos and sulphur-crested cockatoos|journal=Australian Journal of Zoology|volume=51|issue=1|pages=81–94| doi = 10.1071/ZO02003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pell|first=A|coauthors=Tidemann, C|year=1997|title=The impact of two exotic hollow-nesting birds on two native parrots in savannah and woodland in eastern Australia |journal=Biological Conservation|volume=79|issue=2|pages=145–153|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00112-7 }}</ref> Some species are [[bird colony|colonial]], with the [[Burrowing Parrot]] nesting in colonies up to 70,000 strong.<ref>Masello, J; Pagnossin, M; Sommer, C & P Quillfeldt (2006) "Population size, provisioning frequency, flock size and foraging range at the largest known colony of Psittaciformes: the Burrowing Parrots of the north-eastern Patagonian coastal cliffs" ''[[Emu (journal)|Emu]]'' '''106''' (1): 69–79 {{doi|10.1071/MU04047}}</ref> Coloniality is not as common in parrots as might be expected, possibly because most species adopt old cavities rather than excavate their own.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eberhard| first=Jessica| year=2002| title= Cavity adoption and the evolution of coloniality in cavity-nesting birds|journal =Condor|volume=104| issue=2| pages=240–247| doi = 10.1650/0010-5422(2002)104[0240:CAATEO]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
The eggs of parrots are white. In most species the female undertakes all the [[Avian incubation|incubation]], although incubation is shared for in cockatoos, the [[Blue Lorikeet]], and the [[Vernal Hanging Parrot]]. The female remains in the nest for almost all of the incubation period and is fed both by the male and during short breaks. Incubation varies from 17 to 35 days, with the larger species have the longer incubation periods. The newly born young are [[altricial]], either lacking feathers or with sparse white down. The young spend anything from three weeks to four months in the nest, depending on species, and may receive parental care for up to further months thereafter.<ref name="EoB">{{cite book |editor=Forshaw, Joseph |author=Forshaw, Joseph |year=1991 |title=Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds |publisher=Merehurst Press |___location=London |pages=118–124 |isbn=1-85391-186-0}}</ref>
As typical of [[K-selection|K-selected]] species, the macaws and other larger parrot species have low reproductive rates. They require several years to reach maturity, produce one or very few young per year, and sometimes do not breed every year at all.
===Intelligence and learning===
[[File:Sunconurepuzzle.jpg|thumb|[[Sun Parakeet]] demonstrating parrots' puzzle-solving skills]]Studies with captive birds have given insight into which birds are the most intelligent. While parrots have the distinction of being able to mimic human speech, studies with the [[African Grey Parrot]] have shown that some are able to associate words with their meanings and form simple sentences (see [[Alex (parrot)|Alex]] and [[N'kisi]]). Along with [[crow]]s, [[raven]]s, and [[jay]]s (family [[Corvidae]]), parrots are considered the most intelligent of birds. The brain-to body size ratio of psittacines and corvines is actually comparable to that of higher primates.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Iwaniuk
|first=Andrew
|title=This Bird Is No Airhead
|publisher=Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
|date=2004-02-09
|url=http://www.nserc.ca/news/features/parrot_e.htm
|accessdate=2007-09-09}}{{dead link|date=March 2010}}</ref> One argument against the supposed intelligent capabilities of bird species is that birds have a relatively small cerebral cortex, which is the part of the brain considered to be the main area of intelligence in other animals. However, it seems that birds use a different part of their brain, the medio-rostral neostriatum / [[High vocal center|hyperstriatum ventrale]], as the seat of their intelligence. Not surprisingly, research has shown that these species tend to have the largest hyperstriata, and Dr. Harvey J. Karten, a neuroscientist at [[University of California, San Diego]] who has studied the physiology of birds, discovered that the lower part of the avian brain is functionally similar to that in humans. Not only have parrots demonstrated intelligence through scientific testing of their language using ability, but some species of parrot such as the [[Kea]] are also highly skilled at using tools and solving puzzles.<ref>{{cite news
|last=Beynon
|first=Mike
|title=Who's a clever bird, then?
|publisher=BBC News
|date=April 2000
|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/132index.shtml
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070901202329/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/132index.shtml
|archivedate=2007-09-01
|accessdate=2007-09-09}}</ref>
Learning in early life is apparently important to all parrots, and much of that learning is social learning. Social interactions are often practised with siblings, and in several species creches are formed with several broods, and these as well are important for learning social skills. Foraging behaviour is generally learnt from parents, and can be a very protracted affair. Supra-generalists and specialists are generally independent of their parents much quicker than partly specialised species which may have to learn skills over a long period of time as various resources become seasonally available. Play forms a large part of learning in parrots; it can be solitary, and related to motor skills, or social. Species may engage in play fights or wild flights to practice predator evasion. An absence of stimuli can retard the development of young birds, as demonstrated by a group of [[Vasa Parrot]]s kept in tiny cages with domesticated chickens from the age of 3 months; at 9 months these birds still behaved in the same way as 3 month olds, but had adopted some chicken behaviour.<ref name="collar" /> In a similar fashion captive birds in zoo collections or pets can, if deprived of stimuli, develop [[stereotypy|stereotyped behaviours]] and harmful behaviours like self plucking. Aviculturists working with parrots have identified the need for [[Behavioral enrichment|environmental enrichment]] to keep parrots stimulated.
====Sound imitation and speech====
{{Main|Talking bird}}
{{See also|Animal language}}
[[File:Amazon edited.ogg|thumbtime=1|thumb|right|Video of an Orange-winged Amazon saying "Hello" having been prompted by some people]]
Many species can imitate human [[speech communication|speech]] or other sounds. A study by [[Irene Pepperberg]] suggested a high learning ability in an [[African Grey Parrot]] named [[Alex (parrot)|Alex]]. Alex was trained to use words to identify objects, describe them, count them, and even answer complex questions such as "How many red squares?" with over 80% accuracy. [[N'kisi]], another African grey, has been shown to have a vocabulary of approximately a thousand words, and has displayed an ability to invent as well as use words in context and in the correct tense.
Parrots do not have vocal cords, so sound is accomplished by expelling air across the mouth of the bifurcated trachea. Different sounds are produced by changing the depth and shape of trachea. African Grey Parrots of all subspecies are known for their superior ability to imitate sounds and human speech. This ability has made them prized as pets from ancient time to the present. In the [[Masnavi]], a writing by [[Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi|Rumi]] of [[Persia]], AD 1250, the author talks about an ancient method for training parrots to speak.
Although most parrot species are able to imitate, some of the [[Amazon parrot]]s are generally regarded as the next-best imitators and speakers of the parrot world.
The question of why birds imitate remains open, but those that do often score very high on tests designed to measure problem solving ability. Wild African Grey Parrots have been observed imitating other birds.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cruickshank|first=A|coauthors=Gautier, J & Chappuis, C|year=1993|title=Vocal mimicry in wild African Grey Parrots ''Psittacus erithacus''|journal=Ibis|volume=135|issue=3|pages=293–299 | doi = 10.1111/j.1474-919X.1993.tb02846.x }}</ref> Most other wild parrots have not been observed imitating other species.
==Relationship with humans==
Humans and parrots have a complicated relationship. Economically they can be beneficial to communities as sources of income from the pet trade and are highly marketable tourism draws and symbols. But some species are also economically important pests, particularly some cockatoo species in [[Australia]]. Some parrots have also benefited from human changes to the environment in some instances, and have expanded their ranges alongside agricultural activity, but many species have declined as well.
It is possible to devote careers to parrots. Zoos and aquariums employ keepers to care for and shape the behavior of parrots. Some veterinarians who specialize in avian medicine will treat parrots exclusively. Biologists study parrot populations in the wild and help to conserve wild populations. Aviculturalists breed and sell parrots for the pet trade.
Tens of millions of parrots have been removed from the wild, and parrots have been traded in greater numbers and for far longer than any other group of wild animals.<ref>IUCN, Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, 2000–2004, Parrots, Foreword</ref> Many parrot species are still threatened by this trade as well as [[habitat loss]], predation by [[introduced species]], and hunting for food or feathers. Some parrot species are agricultural [[pest (organism)|pests]],<ref>Warburton, L. S. & M. R. Perrin (2006) "The Black-cheeked Lovebird (Agapornis nigrigenis) as an agricultural pest in Zambia" ''[[Emu (journal)|Emu]]'' '''106''' (4): 321–328 {{doi|10.1071/MU04037}}</ref> eating fruits, grains, and other crops, but parrots can also benefit economies through [[birdwatching]] based [[ecotourism]].<ref>Christian, C; Potts, T; Burnett, G & T Lacher Jr. (1999) "Parrot Conservation and Ecotourism in the Windward Islands". ''Journal of Biogeography'' '''23''' (3): 387–393</ref>
===Pets===
[[File:Pet parrots in Cuba.jpg|upright|thumb|Pet [[Cuban Amazon]]s in [[Cuba]]]]
{{See|Companion parrot}}
Parrots are popular as [[pet]]s due to their sociable and affectionate nature, intelligence, bright colours, and ability to [[Talking birds|imitate human voices]]. The domesticated [[Budgerigar]], a small parrot, is the most popular of all pet bird species. In 1992 the newspaper [[USA Today]] published that there were 11 million pet birds in the United States alone,<ref name="usatoday">{{cite web|url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/USAToday/access/4150521.html?dids=4150521&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS&date=Dec+21%2C+1992&author=Ward%2C+Sam&pub=USA+TODAY&edition=&startpage=D1&desc=USA+Snapshots%3A++Most+Popular+Pets|title=USA Snapshots: Most Popular Pets|last=Ward|first=Sam|date=1992-12-21|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=2009-09-06}}</ref> many of them parrots. Europeans kept birds matching the description of the [[Rose-ringed Parakeet]] (or called the ring-necked parrot), documented particularly in a first century account by [[Pliny the Elder]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast235.htm |title=Parrot |publisher=The Medieval Bestiary |date=2008-02-13}}</ref> As they have been prized for thousands of years for their beauty and ability to talk, they have also often been misunderstood. For example, author Wolfgang de Grahl discusses in his 1987 book "The Grey Parrot," that some importers allowed parrots to drink only coffee while they were being shipped by boat considering pure water to be detrimental and believing that their actions would increase survival rates during shipping. (Nowadays it is commonly accepted that the caffeine in coffee is toxic to birds).
Pet parrots may be kept in a cage or [[aviary]]; though generally, tame parrots should be allowed out regularly on a stand or gym. Depending on locality, parrots may be either wild caught or be captive bred, though in most areas without native parrots, pet parrots are captive bred.
Parrot species that are commonly kept as [[pet]]s include [[conures]], [[macaw]]s, [[Amazon parrot|Amazons]], [[cockatoos]], [[African Grey Parrot|African Greys]], [[lovebirds]], [[cockatiel]]s, [[budgerigar]]s, [[eclectus]], [[Caiques]], [[parakeet]]s, [[Pionus]] and [[Poicephalus]]. Species vary in their temperament, noise level, talking ability, cuddliness with people, and care needs, although how a parrot has been raised usually greatly affects its personality.
Parrots can make excellent companion animals, and can form close, affectionate bonds with their owners. However they invariably require an enormous amount of attention, care and intellectual stimulation to thrive, akin to that required by a three year old child, which many people find themselves unable to provide in the long term.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080619152522/http://www.parrotsanctuary.co.uk/Sanctuary/DerrenBrown.htm The National Parrot Sanctuary - Europe's Only Dedicated Parrot Zoo<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Parrots that are bred for pets may be hand fed or otherwise accustomed to interacting with people from a young age to help ensure they will be tame and trusting. However, parrots are not low maintenance pets; they require feeding, grooming, veterinary care, training, [[Behavioral enrichment|environmental enrichment]] through the provision of toys, exercise, and social interaction (with other parrots or humans) for good health. Some large parrot species, including large cockatoos, Amazons, and macaws, have very long lifespans with 80 years being reported and record ages of over one hundred. Small parrots, such as [[lovebird]]s, [[hanging parrot]]s, and [[Budgerigar|budgies]] have shorter life spans of up to 15–20 years. Some parrot species can be quite loud, and many of the larger parrots can be destructive and require a very large cage, and a regular supply of new toys, branches, or other items to chew up. The intelligence of parrots means they are quick to learn tricks and other behaviors—both good and bad—that will get them what they want, such as attention or treats.
The popularity, longevity, and intelligence of many of the larger species of pet parrots has led to many of these birds being re-homed during the course of their long lifespans.
A common problem is that large parrot species which are cuddly and gentle as juveniles will mature into intelligent, complex, often demanding adults that can outlive their owners. Due to these problems, and the fact that homeless parrots are not euthanized like dogs and cats, parrot adoption centers and sanctuaries are becoming more common.
==
[[File:Ara macao -on a small bicycle-8.jpg|right|thumb|[[Scarlet Macaw]] riding a tricycle at a show in Spain]]
Parrot species are found in most zoos, and a few zoos participate in breeding and conservation programs. Some zoos have organised displays of trained parrots and other birds doing tricks.
===Trade===
[[File:Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus wild.jpg|thumb|right|10,000 [[Hyacinth Macaw]]s were taken from the wild for the pet trade in the 1980s.<ref>BirdLife International (2004). ''[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/1314/all Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus]{{dead link|date=March 2010}}''. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 27 August 2007.</ref>]]
The popularity of parrots as pets has led to a thriving—and often illegal—trade in the birds, and some species are now threatened with extinction. A combination of trapping of wild birds and damage to parrot habitats makes survival difficult or even impossible for some species of parrot. Importation of wild caught parrots into the US and Europe is illegal.
The trade continues unabated in some countries. A report published in January 2007 presents a clear picture of the wild-caught parrot trade in Mexico, stating: "The majority of parrots captured in Mexico stay in the country for the domestic trade. A small percentage of this capture, 4% to 14%, is smuggled into the USA."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenders.org/programs_and_policy/international_conservation/mexico_program/stopping_the_illegal_parrot_trade.php/
|title=Stopping the Illegal Mexican Parrot Trade |publisher=Defenders of Wildlife |accessdate=23 December 2007}}</ref> In the early 1980s an American college student who worked his way through school smuggling parrots across the Rio Grande put his contraband Mexican birds in a cage on an inflatable raft and floated with them across the international river to the U.S. side where a partner would be waiting.<ref>Miller, Tom. On the Border: Portraits of America's Southwestern Frontier, p. 94–100.</ref>
The scale of the problem can be seen in the [[Tony Silva]] case of 1996, in which a parrot expert and former director at [[Tenerife]]'s [[Loro Parque]] (Europe's largest parrot park) was jailed in the United States for 82 months and fined $100,000 for smuggling [[Hyacinth Macaw]]s.<ref>{{Cite book
|first=Jason
|last=Lowther
| first2 =Dee
| last2 =Cook
| first3 =Martin
| last3 =Roberts
|title=Crime and Punishment in the Wildlife Trade
|publisher=World Wildlife Federation
|date=2002-08-05
|format=PDF
|url=http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/crime_and_punishment.pdf
|accessdate=2007-09-09 }}</ref> (Such birds command a very high price). The case led to calls for greater protection and control over trade in the birds.
Different nations have different methods of handling internal and international trade. Australia has banned the export of its native birds since 1960. The United States protects its only native parrot through its [[Endangered Species Act]], and protects other nations' birds through its [http://web.archive.org/web/20080408124823/http://www.fws.gov/international/laws/law102.html Wild Bird Conservation Act]. Following years of campaigning by hundreds of NGOs and outbreaks of avian flu, in July 2007, the [[European Union]] halted the importation of all wild birds with a [http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/07/40&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en permanent ban] on their import. Prior to an earlier temporary ban started in late October 2005, the EU was importing approximately two million live birds a year, about 90% of the [http://www.birdsareforwatching.org/news.html international market]: hundreds of thousands of these were parrots. There are no national laws protecting feral parrot populations in the U.S. Mexico has a licensing system for capturing and selling native birds (though the laws are not well enforced).
===Culture===
[[File:ParrotLMCMOCHE.jpg|thumb|right|Moche Parrot. 200 A.D. [[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection]] Lima, Peru]]
Parrots have featured in human writings, story, art, humor, religion and music for thousands of years. From the Roman poet Ovid's "The Dead Parrot"[http://www.bartleby.com/245/215.html (Latin),] [http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/ovid.htm (English)] to [[Monty Python]]'s Dead Parrot Sketch millennia later, parrots have existed in the consciousness of many cultures. Recent books about parrots in human culture include ''Parrot Culture''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Parrot Culture |last=Boehrer |first=Bruce |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8122-3793-1 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |___location=Philadelphia}}</ref>
In ancient times and currently parrot [[feathers]] have been used in ceremonies, and for decoration. The "idea" of the parrot has been used to represent the human condition in [[medieval literature]] such as the [[bestiary]]. They also have a long history as pets.
In [[Polynesian mythology|Polynesian]] legend as current in the [[Marquesas Islands]], the hero [[Laka]]/[[Laka#Marquesas|Aka]] is mentioned as having undertaken a long and dangerous voyage to [[Aotona]] in what are now the [[Cook Islands]], to obtain the highly prized feathers of a red parrot as gifts for his son and daughter. On the voyage a hundred out of his 140 rowers died of hunger on their way, but the survivors reached Aotona and captured enough parrots to fill 140 bags with their feathers.<ref>:*R.D. Craig, ''Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology'' (Greenwood Press: New York, 1989), 6.; E.S.C. Handy, ''Marquesan Legends'' (Bernice P. Bishop Museum Press: Honolulu, 1930), 130–1</ref> By at least some versions, the feathers were plucked off living parrots without killing them.<ref>[http://www2.hawaii.edu/~dennisk/voyagingchiefs/aka.html Aka's Voyage for Red Feathers (Marquesas Islands)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Currently parrots feature in many media. There are magazines devoted to parrots as pets, and to the conservation of parrots ([http://www.worldparrottrust.org/publications/psittascene/psittascene.htm PsittaScene]{{dead link|date=March 2010}}). Fictional films include [[Paulie]], and documentaries include [[The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill]].
Parrots have also been considered sacred. The [[Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] worshipped birds and often depicted parrots in their art.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref>
Parrots are used as symbols of nations and nationalism. A parrot is found on the [[flag of Dominica]]. The St. Vincent parrot is the national bird of [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines]], a Caribbean nation.
Parrots are popular in [[Buddhist]] scripture and there are many writings about them. For example, [[Amitābha]] once changed itself into a parrot to aid in converting people. Another old story tells how after a forest caught fire, the parrot was so concerned it carried water to try and put out the flames. The ruler of heaven was so moved upon seeing the parrot's act, that he sent rain to put out the fire. In [[Buddhism in China|Chinese Buddhist]] iconography, a parrot is sometimes depicted hovering on the upper right side [[Guan Yin]] clasping a pearl or prayer beads in its beak.
Sayings about parrots colour the modern English language. The verb "parroting" can be found in the dictionary, and means "to repeat by rote." There are also clichés, such as the British saying "sick as a parrot."
===Feral populations===
{{Main|Feral parrots}}
[[File:Parrots of telegraph hill.jpg|thumb|right|Feral [[Red-masked Parakeet]]s in San Francisco. The population is the subject of the book and film, ''[[The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill]]''.]]
Escaped parrots of several species have become established in the wild outside their natural ranges and in some cases outside the natural range of parrots. Among the earliest instances were pet [[Red Shining-parrot]]s from [[Fiji]] which established a population on the islands of southern [[Tonga]]. These introductions were prehistoric and Red-shining Parrots were recorded in Tonga by [[Captain Cook]] in the 1770s.<ref name="Steadman">Steadman D, (2006). ''Extinction and Biogeography in Tropical Pacific Birds'', University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77142-7 pp.342–351</ref> Escapees first began breeding in cities in [[California]], [[Texas]] and [[Florida]] in the 1950s (with unproven earlier claims dating back to the 1920s in Texas and Florida).<ref name="Butler">Butler C (2005) "Feral Parrots in the Continental United States and United Kingdom: Past, Present, and Future" ''Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery'' '''19'''(2): 142–149</ref> They have proved surprisingly hardy in adapting to conditions in Europe and North America. They sometimes even multiply to the point of becoming a nuisance or pest, and a threat to local ecosystems, and control measures have been used on some feral populations.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Department of Conservation
|title=DOC's work with rainbow lorikeet
|year=2008
|url=http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/animal-pests-a-z/rainbow-lorikeet/docs-work/
|accessdate=2008-07-14}}</ref>
===Threats and conservation===
[[File:Karolinasittich 01.jpg|thumb|left|A mounted specimen of the [[Carolina Parakeet]], which was hunted to extinction]]
[[File:Uvea Parakeet.JPG|left|thumb|Community-based conservation has helped arrest the decline of the endangered [[Ouvea Parakeet]].]]
A large number of parrot species are in decline, and several species are now [[extinct]]. Of the 350 or so living species of parrot 130 species are listed as near threatened or worse by the [[IUCN]].<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=IUCN |year=2006
|title=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
|url=http://www.iucnredlist.org
|accessdate=31 August 2007}}</ref> There are numerous reasons for the decline of so many species, the principal threats being habitat loss and degradation, hunting, and for certain species, wild-bird trade. Parrots are persecuted for a number of reasons; in some areas they may (or have been) hunted for food, for feathers, and as agricultural pests. For a time, Argentina offered a bounty on [[Monk Parakeet]]s (an agricultural pest), resulting in hundred of thousands of birds being killed, though apparently this did not greatly affect the overall population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://invasions.bio.utk.edu/invaders/monk.html |publisher=The Institute for Biological Invasions |title=The Monk Parakeet |year=2000 |month=December |author=Campbell, T. S.}}</ref> Capture for the pet trade is a threat to many of the rarer or slower to breed species. Habitat loss or degradation, most often for agriculture, is a threat to numerous parrot species. Parrots, being cavity nesters, are vulnerable to the loss of nesting sites and to competition with introduced species for those sites. The loss of old trees is particularly a problem in some areas, particularly in Australia where suitable nesting trees may be many hundreds of years old. Many parrot species occur only on islands and are vulnerable to [[introduced species]] such as [[rat]]s and [[feral cat|cats]], as they lack the [[island tameness|appropriate anti-predator behaviours]] needed to deal with mammalian predators. Controlling such predators can help in maintaining or increasing the numbers of endangered species.<ref>Ron Moorhouse, Terry Greene, Peter Dilks, Ralph Powlesland, Les Moran, Genevieve Taylor, Alan Jones, Jaap Knegtmans, Dave Wills, Moira Pryde, Ian Fraser, Andrew August and Claude August (2002) "Control of introduced mammalian predators improves kaka ''Nestor meridionalis'' breeding success: reversing the decline of a threatened New Zealand parrot". ''Biological Conservation'' '''110''' (1): 33–44</ref> Insular species, which have small populations in restricted habitat, are also vulnerable to physical threats such as hurricanes and volcanic eruptions.
There are many active conservation groups whose goal is the conservation of wild parrot populations. One of the largest includes the World Parrot Trust,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parrots.org/ |publisher=The World Parrot Trust |title=Current homepage}}</ref> an international organization. The group gives assistance to worthwhile projects as well as producing a magazine<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parrots.org/index.php/ourpublication/psittascene/ |publisher=World Parrot Trust |title=Our publications: PsittaScene Magazine}}</ref> and raising funds through donations and memberships, often from pet parrot owners. They state they have helped conservation work in 22 countries. On a smaller scale local parrot clubs will raise money to donate to a cause of conservation. Zoo and wildlife centers usually provide public education, to change habits that cause damage to wild populations. Recent conservation measures to conserve the habitats of some of the high-profile charismatic parrot species has also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the ecosystem.<ref name="Chapter2p12" /> A popular attraction that many zoos now employ is a feeding station for [[lories and lorikeets]], where visitors feed small parrots with cups of liquid food. This is usually done in association with educational signs and lecture.
Several projects aimed specifically at parrot conservation have met with success. Translocation of vulnerable [[Kakapo]], followed by intensive management and supplementary feeding, has increased the population from 50 individuals to 123.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kakaporecovery.org.nz/index.php?option=com_content&view=section&id=9&Itemid=237|title=Then and Now|last=Kakapo Recovery Programme|year=2010|work=Kakapo Recovery Programme|accessdate=1 April 2010}}</ref> In [[New Caledonia]] the [[Ouvea Parakeet]] was threatened by trapping for the pet trade and loss of habitat. Community based conservation, which eliminated the threat of poaching, has allowed the population to increase from around 600 birds in 1993 to over 2000 birds in 2009.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barré|first=Nicholas|coauthors=Theuerkauf, Jörn; Verfaille, Ludovic ; Primot, Pierre and Maurice Saoumoé|year=2010|pages=695|volume=151|title = Exponential population increase in the endangered Ouvéa Parakeet (''Eunymphicus uvaeensis'') after community-based protection from nest poaching |journal=Journal of Ornithology | doi = 10.1007/s10336-010-0499-7}}</ref>
At present the [[IUCN]] recognises 19 species of parrot as extinct since 1600 (the date used to denote modern extinctions).<ref>IUCN (2007). "[http://www.iucnredlist.org/ 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"] . Downloaded on 14 July 2008.</ref> This does not include species like the [[New Caledonian Lorikeet]] which has not been officially seen for 100 years yet is still listed as [[critically endangered]].
Trade, export and import of all wild-caught parrots is regulated and only permitted under special licensed circumstances in countries party to [[CITES]], the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species, that came into force in 1975 to regulate the international trade of all endangered wild caught animal and plant species. In 1975, 24 parrot species were included on Appendix I of CITES, thus prohibiting commercial international trade in these birds. Since that initial listing, continued threats from international trade have lead CITES to add an additional 32 parrot varieties to Appendix I, including nine in the last four years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdsareforwatching.org/WBDecFinal.pdf |title=The European Union Wild Bird Declaration |author=A group of 226 non-governmental organisations |publisher=www.birdsareforwatching.org |date=2005-05-19 |format=PDF}}</ref> All the other parrot species are protected on Appendix II of CITES. In addition, individual countries may have laws to regulate trade in certain species.
==References==<!-- CytogenetGenomeRes117:165. -->
===Notes===
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