Robot: differenze tra le versioni

Versione delle 01:11, 31 gen 2004

Versione delle 01:07, 3 apr 2004

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== Concetto: Che cos'è un robot? ==

[[es:Robot]] [[de:Roboter]]

Nel linguaggio comune, un '''robot''' è una apparecchiatura meccanica che esegue compiti automatizzati, sia in base a una supervisione diretta dell'uomo, che per un programma predefinito, o un insieme di linee guda generali, usando tecniche di [[intelligenza artificiale]]. Questi compiti vanno a rimpiazzare o migliorare il lavoro umano, come nella fabbricazione, costruzione o manipolazione di materiali pesanti o pericolosi.

(''Nota: questo testo, ancora in inglese, è in attesa di una traduzione'')

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'''Robot''' is the general term for a '''mechanical man''' or '''automaton''', but has come to be applied to many machines which directly replace a human or animal.

Un '''robot''' può essere dotato di connessioni guidate dalla retroazione tra percezione e azione, e non dal controllo umano diretto. L'azione può prendere la forma di motori elettro-magnetici, o [[attuatore|attuatori]], che muovono un braccio, aprono e qhiudono una pinza, o fanno muovere il robot. Il controllo passo-passo e la retroazione sono forniti da un [[programma]] che viene eseguito da un [[computer]] esterno o interno al robot, o da un [[microcontroller]]. In base a questa definizione, il concetto di ''robot'' può comprendere quasi tutti gli apparati automatizzati.

The word ''robot'' comes from the [[Czech language|Czech]] word ''robota'' (compare with the [[Russian language|Russian]] ''rabotatj'' for "to work") meaning "drudgery", "servitude", or "forced labor",especially the so-called "labor rent" that survived in the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] until 1848.

In alternativa, il termine ''robot''' viene usato per indicare un '''uomo meccanico''', o un [[automa]] che somigli a un animale (reale o immaginario). Il termine ha finito per essere applicato a molte macchine che sostituiscono direttamente un umano o un animale, nel lavoro o nel gioco. In questo modo, un robot può essere visto come una forma di [[biomimicry]]. L'[[antropomorfismo]] è forse ciò che ci rende così riluttanti a riferirci a una moderna e complessa lavatrice, come a un robot. Comunque, nella comprensione moderna, il termine implica un grado di autonomia che escluderebbe molte macchine automatiche dal venire chiamate robot. Si tratta di una ricerca per robot sempre più autonomi, il che è il maggiore obbiettivo della ricerca [[robotica]] e il motivo che guida gran parte del lavoro sull'[[intelligenza artificiale]].

The word ''robot'' was first used by [[Karel Capek]] in his play ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' (written in [[1920]]; first performed [[1921]]; performed in [[New York]] [[1922]]; [[English language|English]] edition published [[1923]]). [http://www.uwec.edu/academic/curric/jerzdg/RUR/ 1].

== History: Where Did the Idea Originate? ==

Although Capek's robots were [[organism|organic]] artificial humans, the word robot is nearly always used to refer to [[mechanical]] humans. The term '''[[android]]''' can mean either one of these, while a '''[[cyborg]]''' ("cybernetic organism") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts.

The word ''robot'' comes from the [[Czech language|Czech]] (and [[West Slavic]]) word ''robota'' meaning "labor." The word ''robot'' was first used in English in reference to [[Karel Capek]]'s play ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' (written in [[1920]]; first performed [[1921]]; performed in [[New York]] [[1922]]; [[English language|English]] edition published [[1923]]). [http://jerz.setonhill.edu/resources/RUR/ 1]. While Karel is frequently acknowledged as the originator of the word, this is incorrect. his brother Josef Capek used it first in his short story "Opilec" (1917). Karel wrote that his initial choice was the word "laboř".

In the general sense of automaton, the biggest robot in the world is said to be the Maeslantkering, a storm surge barrier in the [[Nieuwe Waterweg]] waterway near [[Hoek van Holland]], [[Netherlands]], which automatically closes when needed.

Although Capek's robots were [[organism|organic]] artificial humans, the word robot is nearly always used to refer to [[mechanical]] humans. The term [[android]] can mean either one of these, while a [[cyborg]] ("cybernetic organism" or "[[bionic]] man") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts.

The idea of artificial people dates at least as far back as the ancient legend of [[Cadmus]], who sowed dragon teeth that turned into soldiers; and the myth of [[Pygmalion]], whose statue of Galatea came to life. In classical mythology, the deformed god of metalwork ([[Vulcan (god)|Vulcan]] or [[Hephaestus]]) created mechanical servants, ranging from intelligent, golden handmaidens to more utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their own power. [[Hebrew]] legend tells of the [[golem]], an clay statue animated by [[Kabbalism|Kabbalistic]] magic.

The word "robotics" was first used (in print) in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s story Runaround ([[1942]]). In it, he referred to the 'three rules of robotics' that later became the [[Three Laws of Robotics]].

In the early [[18th century|1700s]], [[Jacques de Vaucanson]] created an android that played the flute, as well as a mechanical duck that reportedly ate and defecated. E.T.A. Hoffmann's [[1817]] short story "The Sandman" features a doll-like mechanical woman, and Edward S. Ellis' [[1865]] "Steam Man of the Prairies" expresses the American fascination with industrialization. A wave of stories about humanoid automatons culminated with the "Electric Man" by Luis Senarens in [[1885]].

The idea of artificial people dates at least as far back as the ancient legend of [[Cadmus]], who sowed dragon teeth that turned into soldiers; and the myth of [[Pygmalion]], whose statue of [[Galatea]] came to life. In classical mythology, the deformed god of metalwork ([[Vulcan (god)|Vulcan]] or [[Hephaestus]]) created mechanical servants, ranging from intelligent, golden handmaidens to more utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their own power. [[Hebrew]] legend tells of the [[golem]], an clay statue animated by [[Kabbalism|Kabbalistic]] magic. In the far North of Canada and in Western Greenland [[Inuit]] legends tell of the Tupilaq (or Tupilak), which can be created by a sorcerer to hunt and kill an enemy. Using a Tupilaq for this can be a two edged sword since a would-be victim skilled enough in sorcery can stop an attacking Tupilaq and reprogram it to seek and destroy its creator.

Once technology advanced to the point where people foresaw mechanical creatures as more than toys, literary responses to the concept of robots reflected fears that humans would be replaced by their own creations. ''[[Frankenstein]]'' ([[1818]]), sometimes called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with this theme. When Capek's play ''RUR'' introduced the concept of an assembly line run by Robots who try to build still more Robots, the theme took on economic and philosophical overtones, further disseminated by the classic ''[[Metropolis (1927 movie)|Metropolis]]'', and the popular ''[[The Terminator]]'' and ''[[Blade Runner]]''.

The first recorded design of a humanoid robot was made by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] around the [[1495]]. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the [[1950s]], contained detailed drawings for a mechanical [[knight]] that was apparently able to sit up, wave its arms, and move its head and jaw. The design was likely based on his anatomical research recorded in the ''[[Vitruvian Man]]''. It is not known whether or not he attempted to build the robot (see: [[Leonardo's robot]]).

Serious speculation on this theme has continued to the present day, see for example "Why the future doesn’t need us", by [[Bill Joy]] (''Wired'', April [[2000]], [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.04/joy_pr.html]), and [[clanking replicator]]s. This helps fuel some debates on [[personhood]] that question the criteria by which [[human rights]] are assigned in the law.

The first known functioning robot was created in the [[1738]] by [[Jacques de Vaucanson]], who made an android that played the flute, as well as a mechanical duck that reportedly ate and defecated. E.T.A. Hoffmann's [[1817]] short story "The Sandman" features a doll-like mechanical woman, and Edward S. Ellis' [[1865]] "Steam Man of the Prairies" expresses the American fascination with industrialization. A wave of stories about humanoid automatons culminated with the "Electric Man" by [[Luis Senarens]] in [[1885]].

In his ''[[I, Robot]]'' series, [[Isaac Asimov]] created the [[Three Laws Of Robotics]] (later four) in a literary attempt to control the competition of robots with humans. The laws or rules that could or must apply to robots or other "autonomous capital" in cooperation or competition with humans have spurred investigation of [[macro-economics]] of this competition, notably by [[Alessandro Acquisti]] building on much older work by [[John von Neumann]].

Once technology advanced to the point where people foresaw mechanical creatures as more than toys, literary responses to the concept of robots reflected fears that humans would be replaced by their own creations. ''[[Frankenstein]]'' ([[1818]]), sometimes called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with this theme. When Capek's play ''RUR'' introduced the concept of an assembly line run by robots who try to build still more robots, the theme took on economic and philosophical overtones, further disseminated by the classic movie ''[[Metropolis (1927 movie)|Metropolis]]'' ([[1927]]), and the popular ''[[Star Wars]]'' ([[1976]]), ''[[Blade Runner]]'' ([[1982]]) and ''[[The Terminator]]'' ([[1984]]) .

Once the stuff of [[science fiction]], the use of very simple robots is now a commonplace in many areas of industry, and particularly the [[automotive industry]], where they have been programmed to replace human labour in many simple repetitive tasks. There is much hope, especially in [[Japan]], that [[home care]] for an aging (and long-lived) population can be better achieved through robotics. As of 2002, several major Japanese companies, especially [[Honda]] and [[Sony]], had begun selling commercial humanoid robots as "pets". Dog-shaped robots are, however, in much wider production.

== Present Day: How are Robots Used? ==

Other places where robots are likely to replace human labour are in [[deep-sea exploration]] and [[space exploration]]. For these tasks, [[arthropod]] body types are generally preferred. [[Mark W. Tilden]] of [[Los Alamos National Laboratories]] specializes in cheap robots with bent but unjointed legs, while others seek to replicate the full jointed motion of crabs' legs.

Robots are being used today to do the tasks that are either too dirty, dangerous, difficult, repetitive or dull for humans. This usually takes the form of [[industrial robot]]s used in manufacturing lines. Other applications include [[toxic waste]] cleanup, [[space exploration]], [[mining]], search and rescue, and mine finding. Manufacturing remains the primary market where robots are utilized. In particular, articulated robots, similar in motion capability to the human arm, are the most widely used. Applications include welding, painting and machine loading. The [[automotive industry]] has taken full advantage of this new technology where robots have been programmed to replace human labor in many simple repetitive tasks. There is much hope, especially in [[Japan]], that [[home care]] for an aging (and long-lived) population can be better achieved through robotics.

Experimental winged robots and other examples exploiting [[biomimicry]] are also in early development. So-called "[[nanomotor]]s" and "[[smart wire]]s" are expected to drastically simplify motive power, while in-flight stabilization seems likely to be improved by extremely small gyroscopes. A significant driver of this work is military research into spy technologies.

A [[ludobot]] is a robot for entertainment and companionship.

Also, the popularity of the TV shows ''[[Robot Wars]]'' and ''[[Battlebots]]'', of college level [[robot-sumo]] wrestling competitions, the success of "[[smart bomb]]s" and "[[drone planes]]" in armed conflicts, grass-eating "[[gastrobot]]s" in Florida, and the creation of a [[slug]]-eating robot in England, suggest that the fear of an artificial life form doing harm, or competing with natural wild life, is not an illusion.

== Future Developments: How do Robots Move and Operate? ==

The [[worldwide Green Parties]] in 2002 were asking for public input on extending their existing policies against such competition, as part of more general [[biosafety]] and [[biosecurity]] concerns. It appears that, like [[Aldous Huxley]]'s concerns about [[human cloning]], questions Capek raised eighty years earlier in [[science fiction]] have become real debates.

When roboticists first attempted to mimic human and animal [[gait]]s, they discovered that it was incredibly difficult; requiring more computational power than what was available at the time. So, emphasis was shifted to other areas of research. Simple wheeled robots were used to conduct experiments in [[behavior]], [[navigation]], and [[path planning]]. When engineers were ready to attempt walking robots again, they started small with [[hexapod]]s and other multi-legged platforms. These robots mimicked insects and arthropods in both form and function. The trend towards these body types offer immense flexibility and proven adaptability to any environment. With more than four legs, these robots are [[statically stable]] which makes them easier to work with. Only recently has progress been made towards [[bipedal locomotion]] in robots.

Manufacturing remains the primary market where robots are utilized. In particular, articulated robots (similar in motion capability as the human arm) are the most widely used. Applications include welding, painting and machine loading.

Recently, tremendous progress has been made in medical robotics, with two companies in particular, Computer Motion and Intuitive Surgical, receiving regulatory approval in North America, Europe and Asia for their robots to be used in minimal invasive surgical procedures. Laboratory automation is also a growing area. Here, benchtop robots are used to transport biological or chemical samples between instruments such as incubators, liquid handlers and readers. Other places where robots are likely to replace human labour are in [[deep-sea exploration]] and space exploration. For these tasks, [[arthropod]] body types are generally preferred. [[Mark Tilden|Mark W. Tilden]] formerly of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos National Laboratories]] specializes in cheap robots with bent but unjointed legs, while others seek to replicate the full jointed motion of crabs' legs.

Experimental winged robots and other examples exploiting [[biomimicry]] are also in early development. So-called "[[nanomotor]]s" and "[[smart wire]]s" are expected to drastically simplify motive power, while in-flight stabilization seems likely to be improved by extremely small gyroscopes. A significant driver of this work is military research into spy technologies.

Laboratory automation is also a growing area. Here, benchtop robots are used to transport biological or chemical samples between instruments such as incubators, liquid handlers and readers.

== Contests: Where Do Robots Compete? ==

[[Dean Kamen]], Founder of [[FIRST]], and the [[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]] (ASME) created a competitive forum that inspires in young people, their schools and communities an appreciation of science and technology.

Their [[Robotics Competition]] is a multinational competition that teams professionals and young people to solve an engineering design problem in an intense and competitive way. In 2003 the competition will reach more than 20,000 students on over 800 teams in 24 competitions. Teams come from Canada, Brazil, the U.K., and almost every U.S. state. Unlike the Robot sumo wrestling competitions that take place regularly in some venues, or the ''Battlebots'' competitions on TV, these competitions include the creation of the robot.

[[Robocup]] is a competitive organization dedicated to developing a team of fully autonomous humanoid robots that can win against the human world soccer champion team by the year 2050. There are many different leagues from simulation, to full-size humanoid.

The popularity of the TV shows ''[[Robot Wars]]'' and ''[[Battlebots]]'', of college level [[robot-sumo]] wrestling competitions, the success of "[[smart bomb]]s" and [[UCAV]]s in armed conflicts, grass-eating "[[gastrobot]]s" in Florida, and the creation of a [[slug]]-eating robot in England, suggest that the fear of an artificial life form doing harm, or competing with natural wild life, is not an illusion.

== Dangers: Can Robots Hurt People? ==

The concern that robots might displace or compete with humans is common. In his ''[[I, Robot]]'' series, [[Isaac Asimov]] created the [[Three Laws of Robotics]] in a literary attempt to control the competition of robots with humans:

# A robot may not harm a human being, or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.

# A robot must obey the orders given to it by the human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.

# A robot must protect its own existence, as long as such protection does not conflict the First or Second Law.

Unfortunately the issue is not so simple to resolve. Asimov himself based the plots of quite a few robots novels on probing into the applicability and sufficiency of the Three Laws. The laws or rules that could or must apply to robots or other "autonomous capital" in cooperation or competition with humans have spurred investigation of [[macro-economics]] of this competition, notably by [[Alessandro Acquisti]] building on much older work by [[John von Neumann]].

Asimov said in the introduction to his novel ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'' that in the same series he also made "the very first use of the word '''robotics''' in the history of the world, as far as I know."

Even without overt malicious programming, robots and humans simply do not have the same body tolerances or awarenesses, leading to accidents: In [[Jackson, Michigan]] on [[July 21]], [[1984]], a factory robot crushed a worker against a safety bar in apparently the first robot-related death in the [[United States]].

== Additional Robot Topics ==

Topics to cover:

* [[Arthropod robot]]s

* [[Artificial intelligence]]

* [[Autonomous robot]]s

* [[BEAM robotics]]

* [[Behavior based robotics]]

* [[Biomorphic robotics]]

* [[Carbon chauvinism]]

* [[Clanking replicator|clanking replicators]]

* [[Cybernetics]]

* Disabled robotics: [[Robot exoskeleton]]

* [[Domobot]]

* [[Educational Robotics]]:

** Fischer-Technik

** [[Lego Mindstorms|LEGO Mindstorms]]

* [[Evolutionary robotics]]

* [[Humanoid robot]]s

* [[Industrial robot]]s

* [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series]]

* [[Ludobot]]s: play/entertainment robots, like SONY's [[Aibo]] 'dogbot'

* [[Mechatronic]]s

* [[Medical robotics]]

* [[Microbot]]

* [[Micromouse]]

* [[Military robot]]s

* [[Nanotechnology]] and [[MEMS]]

* [[Telepresence]]

* [[RoboticNeural unicyclenetworks]]

See also:

* [[Artificial intelligence]]

* [[Domobot]]s

* [[Ludobot]]s: play and entertainment robots, like ([[Aibo]])

* [[Microbot]]s

* [[Robot control]]

* [[Robocup]]: Robot competition

* [[Robots in literature]]

* [[Robotherapy]]

* [[Robotic unicycle]]

* [[Robots in literature]] and fantasy: [[Robby the Robot]]

* [[Subsumption architecture]]

* [[Robby the RobotTelepresence]]

* [[Uncanny Valley]]

== Famous Roboticists ==

Robot is also:

* [[Ronald Arkin]], [[Georgia Tech]] College of Computing

* [[Rodney Brooks]], [[MIT]] AI Lab

* [[George Devol]] Inventor of the patented devices behind Unimation Inc.

* [[Joseph F. Engelberger]] Founder of Unimation Inc.

* [[Chico McMurtrie]] Founder of Amorphic Robot Works

* [[Hans Moravec]], [[Carnegie Mellon University|CMU]] Robotics Institute

* [[Masahiro Mori]]

* [[Mark Tilden]], [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|LANL]]

* [[Red Whittaker]],  CMU Robotics Institute

== External links ==

*[http://amorphicrobotworks.org/ AmorphicRobotWorks(ARW)] is a group working to create robotic performances and installations

*[http://www.ifr.org International Federation of Robotics].

*[http://www.robothalloffame.org/ The Robot Hall of Fame].

*http://trueforce.com - one of the best sources of in-depth technical information on robotics, with an excellent list of suppliers

*[http://oap.sourceforge.net/ Open Automaton Project]

*[http://www.ebook2u.com/web/Computers/Robotics/ Robotics Directory].

*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.04/joy_pr.html Why the future doesn't need us] by [[Bill Joy]] (cover story of ''[[Wired Magazine|Wired]]'', April [[2000]])

*http://www.robot.org.uk a guide for robot builders with lists of reviewed books, magazines, approved parts suppliers etc.

*[http://www.orionrobots.co.uk/theorionwiki The OrionWiki] is a Wiki specifically aimed at robot technical content. The rest of the site has programs to download, personal spaces for robot builders and hobbyists.

*[http://www.robots.net/ Robots.net] - Hobbyist and Professional Robotics site with pictures, project descriptions, and articles.

*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Robotics/Robots/ ODP Section for Famous Robots] - Links and descriptions for Well-Known Robots; Asimo, COG, and many others.

*[http://www.marshallbrain.com/robotic-nation.htm Robotic Nation] - Robots are everywhere!

*[http://lucy.vub.ac.be Bipedal Walking Robot Lucy] - A bipedal walking robot with artificial muscles (Lucy)!

== Other Usages of ''Robot'' ==

* South African slang specifically for the automated red, amber, green [[traffic light]] controlling an intersection

* Swedish word for [[guided missile]]

* A type of [[Robot (camera)|camera]]

* theThe name of the [[dog]] who discovered the cave paintings at [[Lascaux]]

* A [[bot]] on the [[Internet]]

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