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===Linguistic Syntax-three principles <ref name=Patel2008>Patel, A.D. (2008). Music, Language, and the Brain. Oxford University Press, USA</ref>===
Linguistic syntax is especially marked by its structural richness which becomes apparent in its multi layered organization as well as in the strong relationship between syntax and meaning. That is that there are special linguistic syntactic principles which define how the language is formed out of different subunits, such as words out of [[morphemes]], phrases out of words and sentences out of phrases. The fact that a change in the order of subunits especially in the order of phrases in a sentence can add to a change of meaning, appears to set human language apart from nonhuman animal [[communication systems]]. The sentence “The child with the red shirt hit the man.” has a completely different meaning from the sentence “The man with the red shirt hit the child.” Furthermore, linguistic syntax is featured by the fact that a word can take on abstract [[grammatical functions]] which are less defined through properties of the word itself but through the context and structural relations. This is for example that every [[noun]] can be used as a [[subject (grammar)|subject]], [[object (grammar)|object]] or [[indirect object]], but without a sentence as the normal context of a word, no statement about its [[grammatical function]] can be made. At last, linguistic syntax is marked by abstractness. This means that only conventional structural relations and not psychoacoustic relationships are the basis for the linguistic syntax.
===Musical Syntax <ref name=Patel2008/>===
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==Neuronal processing of musical and linguistic syntax==
'''<ref>•Patel, A.D. (2003). Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nature Neuroscience. 6(7):674-681</ref>'''Investigating the neuronal processing of musical syntax can serve two interesting aspects. The first is to learn more about the processing of music in general. That is which areas of the [[brain]] are involved and if there are specific markers of brain activity due to the processing of music and musical syntax. The second aspect is to compare the processing of musical and linguistic syntax to find out, if they have an effect upon each other or if there even is a significant overlap. The verification of an overlap would support the thesis, that syntactic operations (musical as well as linguistic) are modular. “Modular” means, that the complex system of processing is decomposed into subsystems with modular functions. Concerning the processing of syntax this would mean, that the [[___domain knowledge|___domain]] of music and language each have specific syntactic representations, but that they share [[neural resources]] for activating and integrating these representations during [[syntactic processing]].
===Processing of music and musical syntax===
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====MMN and ERAN <ref>•Koelsch, S. (2009). "Music-syntactic Processing and Auditory Memory – Similarities and Differences between ERAN and MMN". Psychophysiology, 46(1): 179-190.</ref>====
The violation of these automatically made predictions lead to the observation of so called [[Event-related potential|ERPs]] (event related potential, a stereotyped electrophysiological response to an internal or external stimulus). Two forms of ERPs can be detected in the context of processing music. One is the [[Mismatch negativity|MMN]] (mismatch negativity), which has first been investigated only with physical deviants like [[frequency]], [[intensity]],{{dn}} [[timbre]] deviants (referred to as [[phMMN]]) and could now also be shown for changes of abstract auditory features like tone pitches (referred to as [[afMMN]]). The other one is the so called [[Electroencephalography|ERAN]] (early right anterior negativity) which can be elicited by syntactic irregularities in music. Both the ERAN and the MMN are ERPs indicating a mismatch between predictions based on regularities and actually experienced acoustic information. As for a long time it seemed to be, that the ERAN is a special variant of the MMN, the question arises, why they are told apart today. There are several differences between the MMN and the ERAN found in the last years:
=====Differences-occurrence=====
Even though music syntactic regularities are often simultaneously acoustical similar and music syntactic irregularities are often simultaneously acoustical different, an ERAN but not an MMN can be elicit, when a chord does not represent a physical but a syntactic deviance. To demonstrate this, so called “Neapolitan sixth chords” are used. These are consonant chords when played solitary, but which are added into a musical phrase of in which they are only distantly related to the harmonic context. Added into a chord sequence of five chords, the addition of a [[Neapolitan sixth chord]] at the third or at the fifth position evokes different amplitudes of ERANs in the [[EEG]] with a higher [[amplitude]] at the fifth position. Nevertheless, when creating a chord sequence in which the [[Neapolitan chord]] at the fifth position is music-syntactically less irregular than a Neapolitan chord at the third position, the amplitude is higher at the third position (see figure 4...). In opposition to the MMN, a clear ERAN is also elicited by using syntactically irregular chords which are acoustically more similar to a proceeding harmonic context than syntactically regular chords. Therefore the MMN seems to be based on an on-line establishment of regularities. That means, that the regularities are extracted on-line from the acoustic environment. In opposition, the ERAN rests upon representations of music-syntactic regularities which exist in a [[long-term memory]] format and which are learned during early childhood.
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=== Comparison of the processing of musical and linguistic syntax <ref name=Patel2008/>===
As the ERAN is similar to an ERP called [[Early Left Anterior Negativity|ELAN]] which can be elicited by violation of linguistic syntax it seems to be obvious that the ERAN really represents syntactic processing. Deduced from this thought an interaction between music-syntactic and language-syntactic processing would be very likely.There are different possibilities in [[neuroscience]] to approach to an answer to the question of an overlap between the neuronal processing of linguistic and musical syntax.
====Neuropsychological approach====
This method deals with the question, how structure and function of the [[brain]] relate to outcomes in behaviour and other psychological processes. From this area of research there has been evidence for the dissociation between musical and linguistic syntactic abilities. In case reports it was possible to show that [[amusia]] ( a deficiency in fine-grainded perception of pitch which leads to musical tone-deafness and can be congenital or acquired later in life as from brain damage) is not necessarily linked to [[aphasia]] (severe language impairments following brain damage) and vice versa. This means that individuals with normal speech and language abilities showed musical tone-deafness as well as individuals with language impairments had sufficient means of musical syntactic abilities. The problem of neuropsychologic research is that there has not been a former case report which showed that aphasia does not necessarily entail amusia in non-musicians, to the contrary newer findings suggest that amusia is almost always linked to aphasia.
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How can the discrepancy between [[neuropsychology]] and neuroimaging be explained?
====Modularity====
In fact, the concept of modularity itself can help to understand the different and apparently contradicting findings in neuropsychologic research and neuroimaging. Introducing the concept of a dual system, in which there is a distinction between syntactic representation and syntactic processing, this could mean, that there is a distinction between long-term structural knowledge in a [[___domain knowledge|___domain]] (representation) and operations conducted on that knowledge (syntactic processing). A damage in an area representing long-term musical knowledge would lead to amusia without aphasia, but a damage in an area representing syntactic processing would cause an impairment of both musical and linguistic syntactic processing.
====Comparison of syntactic processing-three theories====
The comparison of the syntactic processing of language and music is based on three theories which should be mentioned but which are not explained in detail. The first two, the “dependency locality theory” and the “expectancy theory” refer to syntactic processing in language, whereas the third one, the “tonal pitch space theory”, relates to the syntactic processing in music.
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