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===Musical Syntax <ref name=Patel2008/>===
Concerning musical syntax these three aspects of richness in linguistic syntax as well as the abstractness should be found in music too, if one wants to claim that music has a comparable syntax. An annotation that has to be made concerns the fact that most of the studies dealing with musical syntax are confined to the consideration of Western European tonal music. Thus this article can also only focus on [[Western tonal music]].
====Multi layered organization====
Considering the multi layered organization of music, three levels of [[pitch organization]] can be found in music.
=====Scale degrees=====
The lowest level are [[musical scales]], which consist of seven tones or “scale degrees” per [[octave]] and have an asymmetric pattern of [[interval (music)|intervals]] between them (for example the C-major scale). They are built up out of the 12 possible [[pitch classes]] per octave (A, A♯,B, C, C♯, D, D♯, E, F, F♯, G, G♯) and the different scale tones are not equal in there structural stability. Empirical evidence indicates that there is a hierarchy concerning the stability of the single tones. The most stable one is called the "[[tonic (music)|tonic]]" and embodies the tonal centre of the scale. The most unstable tones were the ones closest to the tonic (scale degrees 2 and 7) which are called the "[[supertonic]]" and the "[[leading tone]]". In studies scale degrees 1, 3 and 5 have been judged as closely related. It was also shown that an implicit knowledge of scale structure has to be learned and developed in childhood and is not inborn.
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=====Key structure=====
The highest level of pitch organization can be seen in [[key structure]]. In Western European tonal music the key is based on a scale with its associated chords and chord relations. Scales can be built up as minor or major scales (differing in the succession of intervals between the scale tones) on each of the 12 pitch classes and therefore there are 24 possible keys in tonal music. Analysing [[key (music)|key]] structure in context of musical syntax means to examine the relationship between keys in a piece of music. Usually, not only one key is used to
All in all it can be said that music like the human language has a considerable multi layered organization.
====Hierarchical structure====
Considering the last two basic aspects of linguistic syntax, namely the considerable significance of the order of subunits for the meaning of a sentence as well as the fact that words undertake abstract grammatical functions defined through context and structural relations, it seems to be useful to analyse the hierarchical structure of music to find correlations in music.
=====Ornamentation=====
One aspect of hierarchical structure of music is the [[Ornament (music)|ornamentation]]. The meaning of the word “ornamentation” points to the fact that there are events in a musical context which are less important to form an idea of the general gist of a sequence than others. The decision on the importance of events not only comprises harmonic considerations, but also rhythmic and motivic information. But a classification of events simply into ornamental and structural events would be too superficial. In fact the most common hypothesis implies, that music is organized into structural levels which can be pictured as branches of a tree. A pitch that is structural at a higher level may be ornamental at a deeper level. This can be compared with the hierarchical syntactic structure of a [[sentence (music)|sentence]] in which there are structural elements which are necessary to
=====Tension and resolution=====
Searching for other aspects of hierarchical structure of music there is a controversial discussion, if the organization of [[Tension (music)|tension]] and [[Resolution (music)|resolution]] in music can be described as hierarchical structure or only as a purely sequential structure. According to [[Patel]] <ref name =Patel2008/> research in this area has produced apparently contradictory evidence, and more research is needed to answer this question.
The question concerning the kind of structure which features tension and resolution in music is linked very close to the relationship between order and meaning in music. Considering tension and resolution as one possible kind of meaning in music a hierarchical structure would imply that a change of order of musical elements would have an influence on the meaning of the music.
====Abstractness====
The last aspect to examine is the [[abstraction|abstractness]] of linguistic syntax and its correlate in music. There are two contradicting point of views. The first one claims that the foundation for musical scales and for the existence of a [[tonal centre]] in music can be seen in the physical basis of [[overtone]] series or in the psychoacoustic properties of chord in tonal music respectively. But in recent time there is strong evidence for the second point of view that syntax reflects abstract cognitive relationships.
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==Neuronal processing of musical and linguistic syntax==
'''<ref>•Patel, A.D. (2003). Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nature Neuroscience. 6(7):674-681</ref>'''Investigating the neuronal processing of musical syntax can serve two interesting aspects. The first is to learn more about the processing of music in general. That is which areas of the [[brain]] are involved and if there are specific markers of brain activity due to the processing of music and musical syntax. The second aspect is to compare the processing of musical and linguistic syntax to find out, if they have an effect upon each other or if there even is a significant overlap. The verification of an overlap would support the thesis, that syntactic operations (musical as well as linguistic) are modular. “Modular” means, that the complex system of processing is decomposed into subsystems with modular functions. Concerning the processing of syntax this would mean, that the [[___domain knowledge|___domain]] of music and language each have specific syntactic representations, but that they share [[neural resources]] for activating and integrating these representations during [[syntactic processing]].
===Processing of music and musical syntax===
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The violation of these automatically made predictions lead to the observation of so called [[Event-related potential|ERPs]] (event related potential, a stereotyped electrophysiological response to an internal or external stimulus). Two forms of ERPs can be detected in the context of processing music. One is the [[Mismatch negativity|MMN]] (mismatch negativity), which has first been investigated only with physical deviants like [[frequency]], [[intensity]],{{dn}} [[timbre]] deviants (referred to as [[phMMN]]) and could now also be shown for changes of abstract auditory features like tone pitches (referred to as [[afMMN]]). The other one is the so called [[Electroencephalography|ERAN]] (early right anterior negativity) which can be elicited by syntactic irregularities in music. Both the ERAN and the MMN are ERPs indicating a mismatch between predictions based on regularities and actually experienced acoustic information. As for a long time it seemed to be, that the ERAN is a special variant of the MMN, the question arises, why they are told apart today. There are several differences between the MMN and the ERAN found in the last years:
=====Differences-occurrence=====
Even though music syntactic regularities are often simultaneously acoustical similar and music syntactic irregularities are often simultaneously acoustical different, an ERAN but not an MMN can be elicit, when a chord does not represent a physical but a syntactic deviance. To demonstrate this, so called “Neapolitan sixth chords” are used. These are consonant chords when played solitary, but which are added into a musical phrase of in which they are only distantly related to the harmonic context. Added into a chord sequence of five chords, the addition of a [[Neapolitan sixth chord]] at the third or at the fifth position evokes different amplitudes of ERANs in the [[EEG]] with a higher [[amplitude]] at the fifth position. Nevertheless, when creating a chord sequence in which the [[Neapolitan chord]] at the fifth position is music-syntactically less irregular than a Neapolitan chord at the third position, the amplitude is higher at the third position (see figure 4...). In opposition to the MMN, a clear ERAN is also elicited by using syntactically irregular chords which are acoustically more similar to a proceeding harmonic context than syntactically regular chords. Therefore the MMN seems to be based on an on-line establishment of regularities. That means, that the regularities are extracted on-line from the acoustic environment. In opposition, the ERAN rests upon representations of music-syntactic regularities which exist in a [[long-term memory]] format and which are learned during early childhood.
=====Differences-development=====
This is represented in the development of the ERAN and MMN. The ERAN cannot be verified in newborn babies, whereas the MMN can actually be demonstrated in [[fetus]]. In two year old children, the ERAN is very small, in five year old children a clear ERAN is found, but with a longer latency than in adults. With the age of 11 years children show an ERAN similar to ERANs in adults. Out of these observation the thesis can be built that the MMN is essential for the establishment and maintenance of representations of the acoustic environment and for processes of the auditory scene analysis. But only the ERAN is completely based on learning to
=====Differences-neural sources=====
Differences between the ERAN and the MMN also exist in the [[neural sources]] for the main contributions to the ERPs. The sources for the ERAN are located in the [[pars opercularis]] of the [[inferior fronto-lateral cortex]] (inferior [[Brodmann's area]] with contributions from the ventrolateral [[premotor cortex]] and the [[anterior superior temporal gyrus]], whereas the MMN receives its main contributions from and within the vicinity of the [[primary auditory cortex]] with additional sources in the [[frontal cortical areas]]. Therefore the sources for the ERAN basically lie in the [[frontal cortex]] whereas the sources for the MMN are located in the [[temporal lobe]]. Other hints for this thesis emerge from the fact that under a [[propofol]] sedation which mainly has an impact on the frontal cortex, the ERAN is abolished while the MMN is only reduced. At last, the amplitude of the ERAN is reduced under ignore conditions whereas the MMN is largely unaffected by attentional modulations.
=====Processes to elicit the MMN or ERAN=====
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As the ERAN is similar to an ERP called [[Early Left Anterior Negativity|ELAN]] which can be elicited by violation of linguistic syntax it seems to be obvious that the ERAN really represents syntactic processing. Deduced from this thought an interaction between music-syntactic and language-syntactic processing would be very likely.There are different possibilities in [[neuroscience]] to approach to an answer to the question of an overlap between the neuronal processing of linguistic and musical syntax.
====Neuropsychological approach====
This method deals with the question, how structure and function of the [[brain]] relate to outcomes in behaviour and other psychological processes. From this area of research there has been evidence for the dissociation between musical and linguistic syntactic abilities. In case reports it was possible to show that [[amusia]] ( a deficiency in fine-grainded perception of pitch which leads to musical tone-deafness and can be congenital or acquired later in life as from brain damage) is not necessarily linked to [[aphasia]] (severe language impairments following brain damage) and vice versa. This means that individuals with normal speech and language abilities showed musical tone-deafness as well as individuals with language impairments had sufficient means of musical syntactic abilities. The problem of neuropsychologic research is that there has not been a former case report which showed that aphasia does not necessarily entail amusia in non-musicians, to the contrary newer findings suggest that amusia is almost always linked to aphasia.
====Neuroimaging====
Furthermore, results from [[neuroimaging]] led to the [[“shared syntactic integration resource hypothesis”]] (SSIRH), which supports the presumption, that there is an overlap between the processing of musical and linguistic syntax and that syntactic operations are modular. Furthermore, research using the method of [[electroencephalography]] has shown that a difficulty or irritation in musical as well as in linguistic syntax elicit ERPs which are similar to each other.
How can the discrepancy between [[neuropsychology]] and neuroimaging be explained?
====Modularity====
In fact, the concept of modularity itself can help to understand the different and apparently contradicting findings in neuropsychologic research and neuroimaging. Introducing the concept of a dual system, in which there is a distinction between syntactic representation and syntactic processing, this could mean, that there is a distinction between long-term structural knowledge in a [[___domain knowledge|___domain]] (representation) and operations conducted on that knowledge (syntactic processing). A damage in an area representing long-term musical knowledge would lead to amusia without aphasia, but a damage in an area representing syntactic processing would cause an impairment of both musical and linguistic syntactic processing.
====Comparison of syntactic processing-three theories====
The comparison of the syntactic processing of language and music is based on three theories which should be mentioned but which are not explained in detail. The first two, the “dependency locality theory” and the “expectancy theory” refer to syntactic processing in language, whereas the third one, the “tonal pitch space theory”, relates to the syntactic processing in music.
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The language theories contribute to the concept that in order to conceive the structure of a sentence, resources are consumed. If the conception of a this structure is difficult due to the fact that distant words belong to each other or an expected structure of the sentence is violated, more resources, namely the ones for activating low-activation items, are consumed.
Violating an anticipated structure in music could mean a harmonically unexpected note or chord in a musical sequence. As in language this is associated with a “processing cost due to the tonal distance” (Patel, 2008) and therefore means that more resources are needed for activating low-activation items.
====SSIRH-the leading concept====
Overall these theories lead to the “shared syntactic integration resources hypothesis” as the areas from which low-activation items are activated could be the correlate to the overlap between linguistic and musical syntax.
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