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====Auditory Environment====
Grant, Bredahl, Clay, Ferrie, Groves, McDorman, and Dark (1988) suggest that the effects of context-dependency also apply to meaningful text material rather than simply lists of unrelated words. They hypothesize that student’s study habits may be harming their exam performance: a typical college student’s study environment often includes background noise while test environments are typically quieter. This mismatch at encoding and retrieval may be detrimental to test performance. To test their predictions, Grant et. al. recruited 39 participants ranging from 17 to 56 years in age. There were 17 females and 23 males. Each participant was to study a basic article on psychoimmunology while wearing headphones. Half the participants would be listening to nothing, while the other half would hear a general conversational hum recorded in a school cafeteria. 16 multiple-choice questions and ten short answer questions were generated to test the material. The short answer test was administered first to ensure that recall from the article rather than recall from the multiple-choice test was being tested. The researchers found that there were context-dependency effects for the newly learned meaningful material independent of test type. In addition, participants who studied with background noise recalled just as much information as students studying in silence. However, whether or not participants studied in the presence of music or not, they always performed better on the test when they were in the same environment for both encoding and retrieval.
===Encoding Specificity and the Voluntary Retrieval of Autobiographical Memory===
===Encoding Specificity and Drugs===
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