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{{Rights}}

The '''men's rights movement''', a particular movement led by people who identify as men's rights activists, emerged in the [[United States]] during the late 1970s to ensure equitable rights for men in the wake of the feminist movement. Men's rights organizations refers to organizations belonging to this movement.<ref name=Chafetz>{{cite book|last=Chafetz|first=Janet Saltzman|title=Handbook of the sociology of gender|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science|___location=New York|isbn=0-387-32460-7|page=168}}</ref> '''Men's rights''' is an umbrella term, encompassing the political [[rights]], [[entitlements]], and [[freedoms]] given or denied to males within a [[nation]] or [[culture]]. Men's rights have been the subject of a variety of social and political movements, including [[men's liberation]], [[profeminist men|profeminists]], [[mythopoetic men's movement]], [[LGBT social movements|gay male liberation]], [[Men's_rights#Men.27s_rights_movement|men's rights movement]],<ref>Messner, Michael A. (2000) Politics of Masculinities: Men in Movements Lanham: AltaMira Press. pp. 1-3. ISBN 0-8039-5577-4.</ref><ref>* Herrmann, Peter. (2004). [http://books.google.com/books?id=HdLVGgJQ0mUC&pg=PA60 ''Citizenship revisited: threats or opportunities of shifting boundaries.''] Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. pp. 60-67 (or more). ISBN 1-59033-900-2.</ref><ref>Newton, Judith Lowder. (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=bXZkmNTSQUAC&pg=PA166 ''From Panthers to Promise Keepers: rethinking the men's movement.''] Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp. 7, 10-14, 117, 187-188, 190-198, 222, 224, 284, 289. ISBN 0-8476-9130-6. (''men's liberation, profeminists, mythopoetics, Promise Keepers, gay male liberation'').</ref> and [[antifeminism]].<ref>Shira Tarrant (2003). [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XQXqxfMGpKYC&pg=PA212 ''Men Speak Out: Views on Gender, Sex, and Power''] Taylor & Francis pp. 212 (or more). ISBN 0-415-95656-0, ISBN 978-0-415-95656-7</ref><ref name=Kimmel531>{{citation |title=Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural and Historical Encyclopedia |author=Kenneth Clatterbaugh |contribution=Men's Rights Movement |page=531 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-774-0 |editor= Michael S. Kimmel and Amy Aronson |year=2003 |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&pg=PA531}}</ref><ref>Michael S. Kimmel (1995). [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ksbyvqKZL2MC&pg=PA61 ''The politics of manhood: profeminist men respond to the mythopoetic men's movement (and mythopoetic leaders answer)''] Temple University Press pp. 61 (or more). ISBN 1-56639-365-5, ISBN 978-1-56639-365-2</ref><ref>[http://www.greenleft.org.au/node/18842 "Can the men's movement be pro-feminist?"] ''Green Left''. November 24, 1999. Retrieved February 2, 2012.</ref><ref>Allan G. Johnson (2005). [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3nnxlqbN-IEC&pg=PA218 ''The gender knot: unraveling our patriarchal legacy''] Temple University Press pp. 218 (or more). ISBN 1-59213-383-5, ISBN 978-1-59213-383-3</ref><ref>Dragiewicz, Molly. (12 April 2011). [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OHr7yWfEjQYC&pg=PA13 ''Equality with a Vengeance: Men's Rights Groups, Battered Women, and Antifeminist Backlash.''] UPNE. pp. 13-18. ISBN 978-1-55553-739-5.</ref><ref>Anna Gavanas (2004). [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HgzFZ4o0qnMC&pg=PA11 ''Fatherhood politics in the United States: masculinity, sexuality, race and marriage''] University of Illinois Press pp. 11 (or more). ISBN 0-252-02884-8, ISBN 978-0-252-02884-7</ref><ref>Stephen M. Whitehead (2001). [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8LmiTxVjCvkC&pg=PA344 ''The masculinities reader''] Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 344 (or more). ISBN 0-7456-2689-0, ISBN 978-0-7456-2689-5</ref><ref>Bret E. Carroll (2003). [http://books.google.ca/books?id=E0R9lLtv8i8C&pg=PA167 ''American masculinities: a historical encyclopedia''] SAGE, pp. 167 (or more). ISBN 0-7619-2540-6, ISBN 978-0-7619-2540-8</ref>

Issues commonly associated with men's rights include marriage, cohabitation, parentage, job discrimination, divorce, support agreements, and child support.<ref>William R. Wishard, Laurie Wishard (1980) ISBN 978-0-89666-012-0 Cragmont Pubns ''Men's rights: a handbook for the 80's''</ref>

==History==

Men's rights has been traditionally defined as rights that should be afforded and protected by governments.<ref>Waldron, Jeremy. (1993) [http://books.google.com/books?id=O2Q7Fj_fJqgC&pg=PA91 ''Liberal rights: collected papers, 1981-1991''] Cambridge University Press. pp. 90-91. ISBN 0-521-43024-0.</ref><ref>Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. (1968). ''The Social Contract.'' London: Penguin Books. pp. 36-37.</ref><ref>Howland, Marie. What are the Functions of Government? [http://books.google.com/books?id=5wQZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA590 ''Appletons' Journal of Literature, Science, and Art, Volume 14.''] New York: D. Appleton and Company. p. 590. (1875).</ref>

In human rights discussions, some {{who|date=January 2012}} argue that human rights have been traditionally focused on rights for men, and not given allowance for the unique circumstances and concerns of women. In other words, "women may enjoy these rights only to the extent that they become like men." Traditionally issues between men and women are considered private family affairs, and as such not afforded needed protection in the public sphere.<ref>Evans, Tony. (1998). [http://books.google.com/books?id=JaFKioE9350C&pg=PA142 ''Human rights fifty years on: a reappraisal.''] Manchester University Press. pp. 132, 141-142. ISBN 0-7190-5102-9.</ref>

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==Men's rights movement==

The men's rights movement, a particular movement led by people who identify as men's rights activists, emerged in the [[United States]] during the late 1970s to ensure equitable rights for men in the wake of the feminist movement. Men's rights organizations refers to organizations belonging to this movement.<ref name=Chafetz>{{cite book|last=Chafetz|first=Janet Saltzman|title=Handbook of the sociology of gender|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science|___location=New York|isbn=0-387-32460-7|page=168}}</ref>

The men's rights movement emerged in the 1970s to address inequities in [[reproductive rights]], [[divorce]] settlements, [[domestic violence]] laws, and [[sexual harassment]] laws.<ref name= messner4148/><ref name="Chapman2010">{{citation |editor=Roger Chapman |title=Culture wars: an encyclopedia of issues, viewpoints, and voices |contribution=Men's Movement |last=Cahill |first=Charlotte |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vRY27FkGJAUC&pg=PA355|accessdate=November 6, 2011|year=2010|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-1761-3|page=355}}</ref> It now also includes [[education]], other [[father's rights]], [[health care]], [[Genital modification and mutilation|genital integrity]] and more.{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} Advocates are known as men's rights activists. They claim that men are oppressed providers<ref name="Bank2011">{{cite book|author=Barbara J. Bank|title=Gender and Higher Education|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jK6WOme5yaQC&pg=PA237|accessdate=November 6, 2011|date=1 February 2011|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-9782-5|page=237}}</ref> and that men in general suffer from living shorter lives, having higher [[suicide]] rates and higher incidents of most [[stress-related disorders]] than do women.<ref name=Kimmel531/>

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===Divorce===

Men's rights groups in the United States began organizing in opposition of divorce reform and custody issues around the 1960s. The men involved in the early organization claimed that family and divorce law discriminated against them and favored their wives.<ref>{{cite book |title = The New Politics of Masculinity: Men, Power and Resistance |author = Christopher P. Mason| page = 57}}</ref>

Rich Doyle wrote of the view of the men's rights movement concerning the court handling of divorces and child custody processes.

<blockquote>Divorce courts are frequently like slaughter-houses, with about as much compassion and talent. They function as collection agencies for lawyer fees, however outrageous, stealing children and extorting money from men in ways blatantly unconstitutional... Men are regarded as mere guests in their own homes, evictable any time at the whims of wives and judges. Men are driven from home and children against their wills; then when unable to stretch paychecks far enough to support two households are termed "runaway fathers." Contrary to all principles of justice, men are thrown into prison for inability to pay alimony and support, however unreasonable or unfair the "obligation."<ref name= messner4148/></blockquote>

Laws and practices regarding spousal support, maintenance or [[alimony]] vary considerably by country and culture. On one end of the spectrum are Nordic countries, like Sweden, that by 1978 assumed that divorced spouses were not responsible for one another. Support might be provided for a transitionary period for the lower-wage earner or primarily care-givers, but only in about 6-8% of the cases and only for a limited time. In most western countries alimony is provided on an ever decreasing basis due to shorter marriages and women more likely to be wage-earners.<ref>Goode, William Joshiah. (1993). ''World Changes in Divorce Patterns.'' Yale University. pp. 40, 44, 64, 90-92. ISBN 0-300-05537-4.</ref> Italy and many countries in Latin America, are on the other end. Women may be supported during legal separation, which is a state in which they wish to remain because of low chance of remarriage, religious reasons or to retain inheritance rights to their husband's property. Such women may be wives to husbands of privileged class. However, the rate of support is declining in Italy, as well.<ref>Goode, William Joshiah. (1993). ''World Changes in Divorce Patterns.'' Yale University. pp. 62-64. ISBN 0-300-05537-4.</ref>

Although the rate of payments of spousal support is declining, both due to the reduced rates at which alimony is granted and low rates at which alimony is generally paid, there are concerns regarding men's rights when women continue to receive support after they enter into new relationships and women are supported by men who are "financially strapped".<ref>Goode, William Joshiah. (1993). ''World Changes in Divorce Patterns.'' Yale University. pp. 164-165. ISBN 0-300-05537-4.</ref> In the United States, the current alimony laws are challenged for constitutionality, assignment of temporary vs. permanent financial support paid to a spouse, and fair and equitable treatment under family law; There are several men's rights crusades to reform alimony at a state and federal level, including [[Arizona]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (United States)|Georgia]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New Jersey]], [[North Carolina]], [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Tennessee]].<ref name=Levitz>Levitz, Jennifer. (October 31, 2009). [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703399204574505700448957522.html "The New Art of Alimony."] ''Wall Street Journal.'' Retrieved November 25, 2011.</ref>

Now that women make up a large percentage of the workforce, existing laws regarding alimony in the United States have come into question.<ref name=Levitz/> A legal precedent for gender-blind spousal support, granting men's rights to alimony, in the United States was made in ''[[Orr v. Orr]]'',<ref>[http://supreme.justia.com/us/440/268/ ''ORR V. ORR, 440 U. S. 268 (1979).''] Justia, US Supreme Court Center. Retrieved November 24, 2011.</ref> where the Supreme Court invalidated Alabama's statutes by which husbands, but not wives, were required to pay alimony upon divorce. This statute was considered a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The percentage of alimony recipients in the US who were male rose from 2.4% in (1996–2001) to 3.6% in (2002–2006) and is expected to increase as more marriages feature a female primary earner.<ref name=WSJMenAlimony>{{cite news |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB120700651883978623.html |title=Men Receiving Alimony Want A Little Respect | accessdate=2009-02-03 | work=The Wall Street Journal | first=Anita | last=Raghavan | date=2008-04-01}}</ref>

===Anti-dowry laws===

Men's rights organizations such as [[Save Indian Family Foundation]] (SIFF) state that men are subject to [[dowry]] harassment when women misuse legislation meant to protect them from [[dowry death]] and [[bride burning]]s.<ref name="Kumar"/> In India, all women who die within 7 years of marriage are presumed by the Indian homicide law to have been victims of dowry death. In some cases, while the victim's husband or his relatives were implicated and jailed, some women were determined to be alive.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} Men's rights activists in India argue that though 18,000 men committed suicide in 2009 due to family issues, 7,000 more than women for the same reason, there are no governmental services for male victims of domestic violence or at-risk for suicide.<ref name=Kumar3>Kumar, Anil. [http://www.malestudies.org/pdf/kumar.pdf ''Men's Movement in India.''] Foundation of Male Studies. p. 3. Retrieved November 24, 2011.</ref>

SIFF is one of the many men's rights organizations in India that focus on the perceived abuse of anti-[[dowry]] laws against men.<ref name=TNN>{{cite news|title=Men demand fair play|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-20/chandigarh/28100670_1_law-ministry-men-demand-awareness-programme|accessdate=20 October 2011|newspaper=Times of India|date=20 November 2009}}</ref> SIFF has stated that they feel that anti-dowry laws have regularly been used in efforts to settle petty disputes in marriage,<ref name=DT>{{cite news|last=Gilani|first=Iftikhar|title=Shoaib Malik controversy to hit Pakistan-India relations|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2010%5C04%5C06%5Cstory_6-4-2010_pg2_6|accessdate=20 October 2011|newspaper=Daily Times|date=6 April 2010}}</ref> and that their helplines receive calls from many men who say that their wives have used false dowry claims to get them jailed.<ref name=TA>{{cite news|last=Dhillon|first=Amrit|title=Men say wives use India's pro-women laws to torment them|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/men-say-wives-use-indias-prowomen-laws-to-torment-them/2007/12/23/1198344884127.html|accessdate=20 October 2011|newspaper=The Age|date=24 December 2007}}</ref>

===Reproductive rights===

In 2003, a British woman lost her challenge against the 1990 Human Fertilization and Embryology Act which specifically states that both partners must consent to the use of their genetic material. She was attempting to gain access to fertilized embryos, frozen prior to her divorce from her ex-husband who had since withdrawn his consent.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/3212677.stm ''Embryo row woman admits defeat.''] BBC News. October 24, 2003. Retrieved November 24, 2011.</ref> However, another British man was forced to pay child support for children conceived artificially after his ex-wife used sperm frozen during their marriage. In this case, the woman had falsely claimed his consent when undergoing the procedure.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1392045/Man-ordered-pay-100-000-children-ex-wife-tricks-clinic-using-frozen-sperm.html "'Father' ordered to pay £100k for children he never knew he had after ex-wife tricked IVF clinic into using his frozen sperm."] ''Daily Mail''. May 30, 2011. Retrieved November 24, 2011.</ref>

In all but 15 countries, husbands are not required to authorize or be notified of an induced [[abortion]].<ref name=Rahman-Induced-Abortion>{{cite journal |author=Rahman, Anika; Katzive, Laura; Henshaw, Stanley K. |title=A Global Review of Laws on Induced Abortion, 1985–1997 |journal=International Family Planning Perspectives |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages= |year=1998 |doi= |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2405698.html}}</ref><ref name=Maximova-Induced-Abortion>Maximova, Vickie. "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1883709.stm Chinese man sues wife over abortion]." (March 20, 2002). ''BBC News.'' Retrieved May 26, 2006.</ref> [[Egypt]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Abortion in Iran|Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Abortion in Japan|Japan]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[Kuwait]], [[Malawi]], [[Morocco]], [[Abortion in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Syria]], [[Abortion in Turkey|Turkey]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] all legally require that an abortion must be authorized by the woman's husband. However, in some countries, this authorization law can be overridden if there is genuine concern for maternal health.<ref name=Rahman-Induced-Abortion/> In China the law states that a woman has no overriding priority over her spouse in deciding whether to have a child,<ref name=Maximova-Induced-Abortion/> but this conflicts with the existing women's right to abortion which has been upheld in court.<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-10/19/content_13933412.htm ''Man sues wife over abortion''] China Daily. October 19, 2011. Retrieved January 29, 2012.</ref>

In the US in 2006, the court case ''[[Dubay v. Wells]]'' concerned whether men should have an opportunity to decline all paternity rights and responsibilities in the event of an unplanned pregnancy. Supporters said that this would allow the woman time to make an informed decision and give men the same reproductive rights as women.<ref>Traister, Rebecca. (March 13, 2006). "[http://www.salon.com/mwt/feature/2006/03/13/roe_for_men/ Roe for men?]." ''Salon.com.'' Retrieved December 17, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.nationalcenterformen.org/page7.shtml ''Roe vs. Wade… for men.''] The National Center for Men. Retrieved November 25, 2011.</ref> In its dismissal of the case, the U.S. Court of Appeals (Sixth Circuit) stated that "the Fourteenth Amendment does not deny to [the] State the power to treat different classes of persons in different ways."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ca6.uscourts.gov/opinions.pdf/07a0442p-06.pdf |format=PDF|title=U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, case No. 06-11016}}</ref>

===Adoption===

Fathers' rights activists seek a gender-neutral approach in which unwed men and women would have equal rights in [[adoption]] issues.<ref name="shanley">{{cite book |author=Shanley, Mary Lyndon |title=Making babies, making families: what matters most in an age of reproductive technologies, surrogacy, adoption, and same-sex and unwed parents|publisher=Beacon Press |year=2002 |pages=46–47 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=3GnloZRnWOAC&pg=PA44 |isbn=0-8070-4409-1 }}</ref>

In [[Oregon]], a U.S. state, an adoption may be granted without the consent of a married woman's husband if it has been determined that her husband at such time was not the father of the child; in this case, consent of the husband (or father) is not required.<ref>[http://laws.adoption.com/statutes/oregon-laws,3.html ''Oregon Adoption Laws, Page 3.''] Adoption Media, LLC. November 24, 2011.</ref>

===Child custody===

[[File:Fathers 4 Justice in Peterborough.jpg|thumb|right|Two protestors from UK-based father's rights group Fathers 4 Justice protesting in Peterborough in 2010.]]

[[Family law]] is an area of deep concern among men's rights groups. These issues vary from state to state and country to country. In India, father's rights have been a concern since 2000.<ref name=Kumar/> Many men feel that they are discriminated against and that they do not have the same contact rights or equitable [[shared parenting]] rights as their ex-spouse.<ref name= messner4148/><ref name=collier>Collier, R.; Sheldon S. (2006-11-01) [http://society.guardian.co.uk/children/story/0,,1935970,00.html ''Unfamiliar territory: The issue of a father's rights and responsibilities covers more than just the media-highlighted subject of access to his children.''] London: [[The Guardian]]. Retrieved 2011-11-24.</ref> The United Kingdom and United States were cited, with several other unnamed countries, as affected regions where [[child custody]] issues have become complicated by higher divorce rates, less father-child time, while there has been greater expectations for fatherly involvement in their children's lives. Authors of ''Unfamiliar territory'' write, "The current struggles of the fathers' rights movement can be understood as part of this complex and painful renegotiation of intimate relations against a backdrop of changing lifestyles and expectations."<ref name=collier/> Father's rights activists seek to change the legal climate for men through changes in family law.<ref name= messner4148/> See [[Fathers' rights movement by country]] for more information about custody concerns.

{{main|Fathers' rights movement by country}}

[[Family law]] is an area of deep concern among men's rights groups. These issues vary from state to state and country to country. In India, father's rights have been a concern since 2000.<ref name=Kumar/> Many men feel that they are discriminated against and that they do not have the same contact rights or equitable [[shared parenting]] rights as their ex-spouse.<ref name= messner4148/><ref name=collier>Collier, R.; Sheldon S. (2006-11-01) [http://society.guardian.co.uk/children/story/0,,1935970,00.html ''Unfamiliar territory: The issue of a father's rights and responsibilities covers more than just the media-highlighted subject of access to his children.''] London: [[The Guardian]]. Retrieved 2011-11-24.</ref> The United Kingdom and United States were cited, with several other unnamed countries, as affected regions where [[child custody]] issues have become complicated by higher divorce rates, less father-child time, while there has been greater expectations for fatherly involvement in their children's lives. Authors of ''Unfamiliar territory'' write, "The current struggles of the fathers' rights movement can be understood as part of this complex and painful renegotiation of intimate relations against a backdrop of changing lifestyles and expectations."<ref name=collier/> Father's rights activists seek to change the legal climate for men through changes in family law.<ref name= messner4148/> See [[Fathers' rights movement by country]] for more information about custody concerns.

Men's rights activists state that the divorce rate in India has sharply risen from less that 5% in 2000, which has over-burdened the Indian court system's abilities to keep pace with the number of child custody cases. They argue that men have been parted from their children, with some only allowed to visit their children at the court once a month for 30 minutes during the to several years that it can take to resolve the custody case. To provide support services to men for shared parenting rights and father's rights, SIFF created several [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs).<ref name=Kumar/>

In the United States, fathers were awarded custody in 17.4 percent of cases in 2007, a percentage that has statistically not changed since 1994.<ref>[http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p60-237.pdf ''Custodial Mothers and Fathers and their Child Support: 2007.''] U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved November 24, 2011.</ref>

===Parental abduction===

Men's rights activists state that children of men of Indian descent have been [[Child abduction|abducted]] from their homes in Canada, the United States and Europe, and moved to India where the national courts do not recognize foreign child custody orders. The country is not subject to the Hague Convention and men accused of dowry harassment may be arrested at Indian airports.<ref name="Kumar"/>

===Parental leaveHealth===

There is wide variance in [[parental leave]] provisions across 24 western countries, which are primarily European countries, Australia, Canada and the United States. The most liberal allows the couple to choose how to split the family leave time between mother and father. In the countries where parental leave is available and defined, it is generally for 2 to 12 days. Where maternal leave is available and defined, all but the United States and Australia, the period of time is generally 14–20 weeks, but four countries have extended leave periods.<ref>{{cite web |work=Department of Business Enterprise & Regulation (2007) (ed.): Internal Review of Leave Policies and Related Research 2007 |title= Employment Relations Research Series No. 80, pp. 12-13. |url=http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file40677.pdf |publisher=berr.gov.uk}}</ref>

Men'sProfessor rightsSusan activistsB. viewBoyd of the healthUniversity issuesof facedBritish byColumbia mencharacterizes andthe theirmen's shorter liferights spansmovement as compared to women as evidence of discrimination and oppression.<ref name= messner4148/><ref name="HaywoodGhaill2003"/> They statesaying that feminism has led to women's health issues being privileged at the expense of men's.<ref name="Boyd2007">{{cite book|author=Menzies, Robert|editor=Susan B. Boyd|title=Reaction and resistance: feminism, law, and social change|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ASc568aunFoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=30 December 2011|date=30 November 2007|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1411-9|pages=65–97|chapter=Virtual Backlash: Representations of men's "rights" and feminist "wrongs" in cyberspace}}</ref> TheyShe states that men's rights activists point to higher suicide rates in men compared to women,<ref name="HaywoodGhaill2003"/><ref name="Boyd2007"/> and complain about the funding of men's health issues as compared to women's, including noting that prostate cancer research receives less funding than breast-cancer research.<ref name="HaywoodGhaill2003">{{cite book|author1=Christian Haywood|author2=Máirtín Mac an Ghaill|title=Men and masculinities: theory, research, and social practice|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=d-vtAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=30 December 2011|date=1 January 2003|publisher=Open University|pages=134–5|isbn=978-0-335-20892-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1998-06-21/features/9806210422_1_men-and-masculinity-dads-million-man-march |title=Feminism Has Created Progress, But Man, Oh, Man, Look What Else |first=Kate |last=Zernike |work=Chicago Tribune |date=June 21, 1998|accessdate=30 December 2011}}</ref> Some doctors and academics have argued [[circumcision]] is a violation of men's right to health and bodily integrity,<ref>{{cite book|last=Denniston|first=George C.|title=Male and female circumcision medical, legal, and ethical considerations in pediatric practice|year=1999|publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers|___location=New York|isbn=0-306-46131-5|page=348}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=El-Salam|first=Seham Abd|title=The Importance of Genital Mutilations to Gender Power Politics|journal=Al-Raida|year=2002/2003|volume=20|issue=99|page=42|publisher=Institute for Women’s Studies in the Arab World|quote=Women’s defense of men’s right to bodily integrity and their work against MGM will not have a negative impact on their struggle against FGM.}}</ref><ref>Margaret Somerville. Altering baby boys' bodies: the ethics of infant male circumcision. In: Margaret A. Somerville. The Ethical Canary: Science, Society and the Human Spirit. Toronto: Viking, 2000. (ISBN 0-670-89302-1)</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Green|first=James|title=The Male Herbal: The Definitive Health Care Book for Men & Boys|year=2007|publisher=Crossing Press|___location=Berkeley, Calif.|isbn=1-58091-175-7|edition=2nd|quote=Circumcision: A Common Form of Disregard for Men's Rights… Glick emphasizes that infants are persons with full civil rights, and therefore no one has the right to impose circumcision on them—not even parents.}}</ref> while others have disagreed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Benatar M, Benatar D |title=Between prophylaxis and child abuse: the ethics of neonatal male circumcision |journal=Am J Bioeth |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=35–48 |year=2003 |pmid=12859815 |doi=10.1162/152651603766436216 |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Clark PA, Eisenman J, Szapor S |title=Mandatory neonatal male circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa: medical and ethical analysis |journal=Med. Sci. Monit. |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=RA205–13 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18049444 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Patrick K |title=Is infant male circumcision an abuse of the rights of the child? No |journal=BMJ |volume=335 |issue=7631 |pages=1181 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18063641 |pmc=2128676 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39406.523762.AD |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Brusa M, Barilan YM |title=Cultural circumcision in EU public hospitals--an ethical discussion |journal=Bioethics |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=470–82 |year=2009 |month=October |pmid=19076127 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2008.00683.x |url=}}</ref>

===Paternity fraud===

[[Paternity fraud]] occurs when a mother intentionally identifies a man as a biological father, who she knows is not the father.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://jme.bmj.com/content/33/8/475.full | title=Paternity fraud and compensation for misattributed paternity | journal=Journal of Medical Ethics | year=2007| volume=33 | pages=475–480 | doi=10.1136/jme.2005.013268| accessdate=2011-11-24 | issue=8 | last1=Draper | first1=H. | pmid=17664309 | pmc=2598159}}</ref>

According to estimates in the United States there might be as many as 800,000 incorrect paternity judgements in [[California]] alone (because of defaults).{{clarify|date=January 2012}} Once so judged, it is extremely difficult or even impossible to get liability for child support removed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henry|first1=Ronald K. |year=2006|title=The Innocent Third Party: Victims of Paternity Fraud |journal= Family Law Quarterly |volume=40|issue=1 }}</ref> In some cases, a husband is legally responsible for his wife's children even if the child is not his own.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bill would give 'duped dads' some fairness under the law |last1=Holstein|first1=Ned |last2=Sacks|first2=Glenn |url=http://www.dailynews.com/opinions/ci_18185434 |newspaper=Los Angeles Daily News |date=1 June 2011 |accessdate=29 October 2011 |quote= "Currently the only person who can be held legally responsible to support the child is the mother's then-husband, who is presumed to be the father because the child was born into the marriage. Judges routinely (and at times apologetically) saddle such "duped dads" with stiff child support orders."}}</ref>

===Health===

Men's rights activists view the health issues faced by men and their shorter life spans as compared to women as evidence of discrimination and oppression.<ref name= messner4148/><ref name="HaywoodGhaill2003"/> They state that feminism has led to women's health issues being privileged at the expense of men's.<ref name="Boyd2007">{{cite book|author=Menzies, Robert|editor=Susan B. Boyd|title=Reaction and resistance: feminism, law, and social change|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ASc568aunFoC&pg=PA86|accessdate=30 December 2011|date=30 November 2007|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1411-9|pages=65–97|chapter=Virtual Backlash: Representations of men's "rights" and feminist "wrongs" in cyberspace}}</ref> They point to higher suicide rates in men compared to women,<ref name="HaywoodGhaill2003"/><ref name="Boyd2007"/> and complain about the funding of men's health issues as compared to women's, including noting that prostate cancer research receives less funding than breast-cancer research.<ref name="HaywoodGhaill2003">{{cite book|author1=Christian Haywood|author2=Máirtín Mac an Ghaill|title=Men and masculinities: theory, research, and social practice|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=d-vtAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=30 December 2011|date=1 January 2003|publisher=Open University|pages=134–5|isbn=978-0-335-20892-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1998-06-21/features/9806210422_1_men-and-masculinity-dads-million-man-march |title=Feminism Has Created Progress, But Man, Oh, Man, Look What Else |first=Kate |last=Zernike |work=Chicago Tribune |date=June 21, 1998|accessdate=30 December 2011}}</ref> Some doctors and academics have argued [[circumcision]] is a violation of men's right to health and bodily integrity,<ref>{{cite book|last=Denniston|first=George C.|title=Male and female circumcision medical, legal, and ethical considerations in pediatric practice|year=1999|publisher=Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers|___location=New York|isbn=0-306-46131-5|page=348}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=El-Salam|first=Seham Abd|title=The Importance of Genital Mutilations to Gender Power Politics|journal=Al-Raida|year=2002/2003|volume=20|issue=99|page=42|publisher=Institute for Women’s Studies in the Arab World|quote=Women’s defense of men’s right to bodily integrity and their work against MGM will not have a negative impact on their struggle against FGM.}}</ref><ref>Margaret Somerville. Altering baby boys' bodies: the ethics of infant male circumcision. In: Margaret A. Somerville. The Ethical Canary: Science, Society and the Human Spirit. Toronto: Viking, 2000. (ISBN 0-670-89302-1)</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Green|first=James|title=The Male Herbal: The Definitive Health Care Book for Men & Boys|year=2007|publisher=Crossing Press|___location=Berkeley, Calif.|isbn=1-58091-175-7|edition=2nd|quote=Circumcision: A Common Form of Disregard for Men's Rights… Glick emphasizes that infants are persons with full civil rights, and therefore no one has the right to impose circumcision on them—not even parents.}}</ref> while others have disagreed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Benatar M, Benatar D |title=Between prophylaxis and child abuse: the ethics of neonatal male circumcision |journal=Am J Bioeth |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=35–48 |year=2003 |pmid=12859815 |doi=10.1162/152651603766436216 |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Clark PA, Eisenman J, Szapor S |title=Mandatory neonatal male circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa: medical and ethical analysis |journal=Med. Sci. Monit. |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=RA205–13 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18049444 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Patrick K |title=Is infant male circumcision an abuse of the rights of the child? No |journal=BMJ |volume=335 |issue=7631 |pages=1181 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18063641 |pmc=2128676 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39406.523762.AD |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Brusa M, Barilan YM |title=Cultural circumcision in EU public hospitals--an ethical discussion |journal=Bioethics |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=470–82 |year=2009 |month=October |pmid=19076127 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2008.00683.x |url=}}</ref>

Academics critique the claims,<ref name="HaywoodGhaill2003"/><ref name="Flood2004"/><ref name= messner67>Messner, Michael A. (2000) Politics of Masculinities: Men in Movements Lanham: AltaMira Press. pp. 6-7. ISBN 0-8039-5577-4.</ref> stating, as [[Michael Messner]] puts it, that the poorer health outcomes are the heavy costs paid by men "for conformity with the narrow definitions of masculinity that promise to bring them status and privilege"<ref name= messner67/> and that these costs fall disproportionately on men who are marginalized socially and economically.<ref name= messner67/> In this view, and according to [[Michael Flood]], men's health would best be improved by "tackling destructive notions of manhood, an economic system which values profit and productivity over workers’ health, and the ignorance of service providers" instead of blaming a feminist health movement.<ref name="Flood2004"/>

Line 89 ⟶ 71:

===Education===

Men'sAmerican rightsauthor activists[[Warren describeFarrell]] describes the education of boys as being in crisis, with boys having reduced educational achievement and motivation as compared to girls.<ref name=forbes/>

Advocates blame the influence of feminism on education for discrimination against and systematic oppression of boys in the education system.<ref name="MartinoKehler2009">{{cite book|author1=Mills, Martin|author2=Francis, Becky|author3=Skelton, Christine|editor=Wayne Martino, Michael Kehler, and Marcus B. Weaver-Hightower|title=The problem with boys' education: beyond the backlash|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ouWMouuNuWAC&pg=PA38|date=8 June 2009|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-56023-683-2|pages=38–55|chapter=Gender policies in Australia and the United Kingdom}}</ref> They critique what they describe as the "feminization" of education, stating that the predominance of female teachers, a focus on girls' needs as well as a curricula and assessment methods that favour girls have proved repressive and restrictive to men and boys.<ref name=forbes/><ref name="FrancisSkelton2005">{{cite book|author1=Becky Francis|author2=Christine Skelton|title=Reassessing gender and achievement: questioning contemporary key debates|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XkkfekXzkZMC&pg=PA18|accessdate=26 December 2011|date=27 September 2005|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-33324-5|pages=18–19, 141 }}</ref>

Men's rights approaches call for increased recognition of masculinity, greater numbers of male role models, more competitive sports, and the increased responsibilities for boys in the school setting. They have also urged for clearer school routines, more traditional school structures, including single sex classes, and stricter discipline.<ref name="FrancisSkelton2005"/>

Critics suggest that men's rights groups tend to view boys as a homogeneous group sharing common experiences of schooling and that they do not take sufficient account in their analysis of how responses to educational approaches may differ by age, culture, ethnicity, sexuality, religion, and class.<ref name="FrancisSkelton2005"/>

Line 98 ⟶ 78:

===Military conscription===

Men's rights activists have argued that military [[conscription]] of men is an example of oppression of men.<ref name= messner4148/><ref name="BoydLongwood1996">{{cite book|author1=Stephen Blake Boyd|author2=W. Merle Longwood|author3=Mark William Muesse|title=Redeeming men: religion and masculinities|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VSrhNzWb6sIC&pg=PR17|date=November 6, 1996|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-25544-2|page=17}}</ref>

In 1971 in the United States, draft resisters initiated a class-action suit alleging that male only conscription violated men's rights to equal protection under the US constitution.<ref name=tb/><ref name="Binkin1993"/> When the case, ''[[Rostker v. Goldberg]]'', reached the Supreme Court in 1981, they were supported by a men's rights group and multiple women's groups, including the [[National Organization for Women]].<ref name=tb>{{cite news |url= http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=UDFPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nwIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6777,7767318&dq=men%27s-rights+conscription&hl=en |title=Supreme Court to begin hearing male-only military draft case |first= Richard |last= Carelli|work=Toledo Blade|date= March 23, 1981|accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref> However, the Supreme Court upheld the Military Selective Service Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than equity.<ref name="Binkin1993">{{cite book|author=Martin Binkin|title=Who will fight the next war?: the changing face of the American military|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AOHD6sbzNysC&pg=PA53|accessdate=12 November 2011|year=1993|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=978-0-8157-0955-8|page=53}}</ref><ref>[http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0453_0057_ZS.html Cornell University Law School: Rostker v. Goldberg]</ref>

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===Allegations of rape===

Men's rights activistsAntifeminists have stated that there is an epidemic of false rape accusations which are devastating to those falsely accused,<ref name=telher>{{cite news |url= http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=5TdFAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gbsMAAAAIBAJ&pg=6761,149065&dq=men%27s+rights+rape&hl=en |title= - Google News Archive Search |first= |last={{err|{{AUTHOR MISSING}}}} |work=The Telegraph-Herald|date= November 1, 1992 |accessdate=23 December 2011}}</ref><ref name=Lee>{{cite book | last = Lee | first = CN |editor= Carroll, Brett | title = American Masculinities : A Historical Encyclopedia | publisher = [[SAGE Publications]] | chapter= Fathers' rights| year=2003|pages= 166–68 | isbn = 978-0-7619-2540-8 |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=E0R9lLtv8i8C&pg=PA166}}</ref> and have campaigned to increase the level of evidence required to support rape and domestic violence cases.<ref name=Lee/><ref name="Kimmel">{{citation |title=Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural and Historical Encyclopedia |author=Michael Kimmel |year=1992 |contribution=Anti-Feminism |pages=35–37 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-774-0 |editor= Michael S. Kimmel and Amy Aronson |publication-date=2003 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jWj5OBvTh1IC&pg=PA37 |accessdate=23 December 2011}}</ref> They protest the naming of accused rapists while providing the accuser with anonymity.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,158869,00.html |title=Privacy Rights Eroding Down Slippery Slope &#124; Fox News |first= McElroy |last=Wendy |work=foxnews.com |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=23 December 2011}}</ref>

Some men's rights activists question the criminal status of [[marital rape]], arguing that sex within marriage forms part of the marriage covenant.<ref name="LosekeGelles2005">{{cite book|author1=Donileen R. Loseke|author2=Richard J. Gelles|author3=Mary M. Cavanaugh|title=Current controversies on family violence|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YBVGswoPYqMC&pg=PA92|accessdate=6 February 2012|year=2005|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-0-7619-2106-6|pages=92–}}</ref><ref name=Lee/><ref>{{cite news |url= http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n31_v10/ai_15674644/pg_4/?tag=content;col1 |title=Complexities cloud marital rape case; William Hetherington has spent nine years in a Michigan prison, but proclaims his innocence |first=Cathy |last=Young |work=Insight on the News |date=August 4, 1994 |accessdate=23 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="Segal1994">{{cite book|author=Lynne Segal|title=Straight sex: rethinking the politics of pleasure|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-m2pGUgX-RAC&pg=PA276|accessdate=6 February 2012|date=1 December 1994|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20001-2|pages=276–}}</ref> In extramarital contexts, they have suggested the signing of a "consensual sex contract" by partners before sexual intercourse in order to protect men from accusations of rape, and from child support payments if a child is conceived as a result.<ref name=telher/>