Programmed learning: Difference between revisions

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'''Programmed Learning''' or '''Programmed Instruction''' is a learning methodology or technique first proposed by the [[behaviorism|behaviorist]] [[Burrhus Frederic Skinner|B. F. Skinner]] in 1958.<ref>Becker, Henry Jay (1993) "A model for improving the performance of integrated learning systems" [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ICZQ0mfWq88C&pg=PA13 page 13] ''In'' Bailey, Gerald D. (editor) (1993) ''Computer-based integrated learning systems'' Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 11-31, ISBN 0-87778-256-3</ref> According to Skinner, the purpose of programmed learning is to "manage human learning under controlled conditions".<ref name="Pritchard-24">Pritchard, Alan (2009) ''Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom'' (2nd edition) David Fulton, London, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PD2YE3FOpXEC&pg=PT24 page 12] ISBN 978-0-415-46608-0</ref> Programmed learning has three elements: (1) it delivers information in small bites, (2) it is self-paced by the learner, and (3) it provides immediate feedback, both positive and negative, to the learner.<ref name="Ravenscroft-134">Ravenscroft, Andrew (2001) "Designing E-learning Interactions in the 21st century: revisiting and rethinking the role of theory" ''European Journal of Education'' 36(2): pp. 133-156, page 134, {{doi|10.1111/1467-3435.00056}}</ref> It was popular in the late 1960s and through the 1970s, but pedagogical interest was lost in the early 1980s as it was difficult to implement and its limitations were not well understood by practitioners. It was revived in the 1990s in the computerized [[Integrated Learning Systems|Integrated Learning System (ILS)]] approach,<ref name="Pritchard-24"/> primarily in the business and managerial context.<ref>Tyre, Terian (1 April 1990) "Integrated learning systems: extending their reach" ''THE journal : technological horizons in education'' 17: ([http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5000113953 excerpt])</ref> Programmed learning remains popular in self-teaching textbooks.

The methodology involves self-administered and self-paced learning, in which the student is presented with information in small steps often referred to as "frames".<ref name="Pritchard-24"/> Each frame contains a small segment of the information to be learned, and a question which the student must answer. After each frame the student uncovers, or is directed to, additional information based on an incorrect answer, or positive feedback for a correct answer.

==Examples==

Daily Oral Language and the [[Saxon (teaching method)|Saxon method]], a math programme, are specific implementations of programmed instruction which have an emphasis on repetition.<ref>Jones, Susan J. (2003) ''Blueprint for student success: a guide to research-based teaching practices, K-12'' Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, California, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CTvgSf2H8GQC&pg=PA105 page 105], ISBN 0-7619-4697-7</ref>

Well-known books using programmed learning include the [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]]/[[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]] text ''The Little Schemer''<ref>Friedman, Daniel and Felleisen, Matthias (1996) ''The Little Schemer'' MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, ISBN 0-262-56099-2</ref> and ''Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess''.<ref>[[Bobby Fischer|Fischer, Bobby]]; Margulies, Stuart and Mosenfelder, Donn (1966) ''Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess'' Bantam Books, New York, ISBN 0-553-26315-3; and various editions since</ref>.

==Criticism==