Computer-assisted language learning: Difference between revisions

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'''Computer-assisted language learning (CALL)''' is succinctly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p.&nbsp;1) as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning".<ref name=levy1997>Levy M. (1997) ''CALL: context and conceptualisation'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> CALL embraces a wide range of [[information and communications technology]] applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterised CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as used in a [[virtual learning environment]] and Web-based [[distance learning]]. It also extends to the use of [[#Corpora and concordancers|corpora and concordancers]], interactive whiteboards,<ref name=schmidcutrim2009>Schmid Euline Cutrim (2009) ''Interactive whiteboard technology in the language classroom: exploring new pedagogical opportunities'', Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.</ref> Computer-mediated communication (CMC),<ref name=lamyhampel>Lamy M.-N. & Hampel R. (2007) ''Online communication in language learning and teaching'', Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> [[#Virtual worlds|language learning in virtual worlds]], and [[Mobile Assisted Language Learning|mobile-assisted language learning (MALL)]].<ref name=shieldkukulska>Shield L. & Kukulska-Hulme A. (eds.) (2008) Special edition of ''ReCALL'' (20, 3) on ''Mobile Assisted Language Learning''.</ref>

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==History==

CALL dates back to the 1960s, when it was first introduced on university mainframe computers. The PLATO project, initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960, is an important landmark in the early development of CALL (Marty 1981).<ref>Marty F. (1981) "Reflections on the use of computers in second language acquisition", ''System'' 9, 2: 85-98.</ref> The advent of the microcomputer in the late 1970s brought computing within the range of a wider audience, resulting in a boom in the development of CALL programs and a flurry of publications of books on CALL in the early 1980s.

Dozens of CALL programs are currently available on the internet, at prices ranging from free to expensive,<ref>{{cite web|title=Reviews of Language Courses|url=http://Lang1234.com|publisher=Lang1234|accessdate=12 SeptSep 2012}}</ref> and other programs are available only through university language courses.

There have been several attempts to document the history of CALL. Sanders (1995) covers the period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, focusing on CALL in North America.<ref>Sanders R. (ed.) (1995) ''Thirty years of computer-assisted language instruction'', Festschrift for John R. Russell, ''CALICO Journal'' Special Issue, 12, 4.</ref> Delcloque (2000) documents the history of CALL worldwide, from its beginnings in the 1960s to the dawning of the new millennium.<ref>Delcloque P. (2000) ''History of CALL'' [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/History_of_CALL.pdf</ref> Davies (2005) takes a look back at CALL's past and attempts to predict where it is going.<ref>Davies G. (2005) ''Computer Assisted Language Learning: Where are we now and where are we going?'' [ Online]: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/docs/UCALL_Keynote.htm</ref> Hubbard (2009) offers a compilation of 74 key articles and book excerpts, originally published in the years 1988-2007, that give a comprehensive overview of the wide range of leading ideas and research results that have exerted an influence on the development of CALL or that show promise in doing so in the future.<ref>Hubbard P. (2009) (ed.) ''Computer-assisted language learning'', Volumes I-IV, Routledge: London and New York: http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callcc/</ref> A published review of Hubbard's collection can be found in ''Language Learning & Technology'' 14, 3 (2010).<ref>''Language Learning & Technology'' (2010) 14, 3, pp. 14-18 [Online]: http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2010/index.html</ref>

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Most CALL programs in Warschauer & Healey's first phase, Behavioristic CALL (1960s to 1970s), consisted of drill-and-practice materials in which the computer presented a stimulus and the learner provided a response. At first, both could be done only through text. The computer would analyse students' input and give feedback, and more sophisticated programs would react to students' mistakes by branching to help screens and remedial activities. While such programs and their underlying pedagogy still exist today, behaviouristic approaches to language learning have been rejected by most language teachers, and the increasing sophistication of computer technology has led CALL to other possibilities.

The second phase described by Warschauer & Healey, Communicative CALL, is based on the [[communicative approach]] that became prominent in the late 1970s and 1980s (Underwood 1984).<ref>Underwood J. (1984) ''Linguistics, computers and the language teacher: a communicative approach'', Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House.</ref> In the communicative approach the focus is on using the language rather than analysis of the language, and grammar is taught implicitly rather than explicitly. It also allows for originality and flexibility in student output of language. The communicative approach coincided with the arrival of the PC, which made computing much more widely available and resulted in a boom in the development of software for language learning. The first CALL software in this phase continued to provide skill practice but not in a drill format—for example: paced reading, text reconstruction and language games—but the computer remained the tutor. In this phase, computers provided context for students to use the language, such as asking for directions to a place, and programs not designed for language learning such as [[Sim City]], ''Sleuth'' and [[Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego?]] were used for language learning. Criticisms of this approach include using the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected manner for more marginal aims rather than the central aims of language teaching.

The third phase of CALL described by Warschauer & Healey, Integrative CALL, starting from the 1990s, tried to address criticisms of the communicative approach by integrating the teaching of language skills into tasks or projects to provide direction and coherence. It also coincided with the development of multimedia technology (providing text, graphics, sound and animation) as well as Computer-mediated communication (CMC). CALL in this period saw a definitive shift from the use of the computer for drill and tutorial purposes (the computer as a finite, authoritative base for a specific task) to a medium for extending education beyond the classroom. Multimedia CALL started with interactive laser videodiscs such as ''Montevidisco'' (Schneider & Bennion 1984)<ref>Schneider E.W. & Bennion J.L. (1984) "Veni, vidi, vici, via videodisc: a simulator for instructional courseware". In Wyatt D.H. (ed.) ''Computer-assisted language instruction'', Oxford: Pergamon.</ref> and ''A la rencontre de Philippe'' (Fuerstenberg 1993),<ref>Fuerstenberg G. (1993) ''A la rencontre de Philippe'': Videodisc, Software, Teacher's Manual and Student Activities Workbook: Yale University Press [Online]: http://web.mit.edu/fll/www/projects/Philippe.html</ref> both of which were simulations of situations where the learner played a key role. These programs later were transferred to CD-ROMs, and new [[role-playing games]] (RPGs) such as ''Who is Oscar Lake?'' made their appearance in a range of different languages.

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* An instructional designer. Developing a CALL package is more than just putting a text book into a computer. An instructional designer will probably have a background in cognitive psychology and media technology, and will be able to advise the subject specialists in the team on the appropriate use of the chosen technology (Gimeno & Davies 2010).<ref>Gimeno-Sanz A. & Davies G. (2010) CALL software design and implementation. Module 3.2 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod3-2.htm</ref>

CALL inherently supports [[learner autonomy]], the final of the eight conditions that Egbert et al. (2007) cite as “Conditions for Optimal Language Learning Environments”. Learner autonomy places the learner firmly in control so that he or she “decides on learning goals” (Egbert et al., 2007, p.&nbsp;8).<ref>Egbert J., Chao C.-C., & Hanson-Smith E. (2007) Introduction: Foundations for Teaching and Learning. In Egbert J. & E. Hanson-Smith (eds.) '' CALL environments: Research, practice, and critical issues '' (2nd edition). Alexandria, VA: TESOL. (pp. 1-14).</ref>

It is all too easy when designing CALL software to take the comfortable route and produce a set of multiple-choice and gap-filling exercises, using a simple authoring tool (Bangs 2011),<ref>Bangs P. (2011) Introduction to CALL authoring programs. Module 2.5 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod2-5.htm</ref> but CALL is much more than this; Stepp-Greany (2002), for example, describes the creation and management of an environment incorporating a [[Constructivism (learning theory)|constructivist]] and [[whole language]] philosophy. According to constructivist theory, learners are active participants in tasks in which they "construct" new knowledge derived from their prior experience. Learners also assume responsibility for their learning, and the teacher is a facilitator rather than a purveyor of knowledge. Whole language theory embraces constructivism and postulates that language learning moves from the whole to the part, rather than building sub-skills to lead towards the higher abilities of comprehension, speaking, and writing. It also emphasises that comprehending, speaking, reading, and writing skills are interrelated, reinforcing each other in complex ways. Language acquisition is, therefore, an active process in which the learner focuses on cues and meaning and makes intelligent guesses. Additional demands are placed upon teachers working in a technological environment incorporating constructivist and whole language theories. The development of teachers’ professional skills must include new pedagogical as well as technical and management skills. Regarding the issue of teacher facilitation in such an environment, the teacher has a key role to play, but there could be a conflict between the aim to create an atmosphere for learner independence and the teacher's natural feelings of responsibility. In order to avoid learners’ negative perceptions, Stepp-Greany points out that it is especially important for the teacher to continue to address their needs, especially those of low-ability learners.<ref name=steppgreany>Stepp-Greany J. (2002) "Student perceptions on language learning in a technological environment: implications for the new millennium", ''Language Learning & Technology'' 6, 1: 165-180 [Online]: http://llt.msu.edu/vol6num1/steppgreany/default.html</ref>

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==Multimedia==

Language teachers have been avid users of technology for a very long time. Gramophone records were among the first technological aids to be used by language teachers in order to present students with recordings of native speakers’ voices, and broadcasts from foreign radio stations were used to make recordings on reel-to-reel tape recorders. Other examples of technological aids that have been used in the foreign language classroom include slide projectors, film-strip projectors, film projectors, videocassette recorders and DVD players. In the early 1960s, integrated courses (which were often described as multimedia courses) began to appear. Examples of such courses are ''Ecouter et Parler'' (consisting of a coursebook and tape recordings)<ref>Côté D., Narins Levy S. & O'Connor P. (1962) ''Ecouter et Parler'', Paris: Librairie Marcel Didier.</ref> and ''Deutsch durch die audiovisuelle Methode'' (consisting of an illustrated coursebook, tape recordings and a film-strip - based on the Structuro-Global Audio-Visual method).<ref>Burgdorf I. Montani K., Z. Skreb Z. & Vidovic M. (1962) ''Deutsch durch die audio-visuelle Methode'', New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston 1962.</ref>

During the 1970s and 1980s standard microcomputers were incapable of producing sound and they had poor graphics capability. This represented a step backwards for language teachers, who by this time had become accustomed to using a range of different media in the foreign language classroom. The arrival of the multimedia computer in the early 1990s was therefore a major breakthrough as it enabled text, images, sound and video to be combined in one device and the integration of the four basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing (Davies 2011: Section 1).<ref name=daviesmodmm>Davies G. (2011) Introduction to multimedia CALL. Module 2.2 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers'' (ICT4LT), Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod2-2.htm</ref>

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Regardless of the pros and cons of Second Life, language teachers’ interest in virtual worlds continues to grow. The joint EUROCALL/CALICO Virtual Worlds Special Interest Group<ref>EUROCALL/CALICO Virtual Worlds Special Interest Group: http://virtualworldssig.ning.com</ref> was set up in 2009, and there are now many areas in Second Life that are dedicated to language learning and teaching, for example the commercial area for learners of English, which is managed by Language Lab,<ref>LanguageLab: http://www.languagelab.com/en/</ref> and free areas such as the region maintained by the Goethe-Institut<ref>Goethe-Institut: http://www.goethe.de/frm/sec/enindex.htm</ref> and the EduNation Islands.<ref>EduNation Islands: http://edunation-islands.wikispaces.com</ref> There are also examples of simulations created specifically for language education, such as those produced by the EC-funded NIFLAR<ref>Networked Interaction in Foreign Language Acquisition and Research (NIFLAR): http://niflar.ning.com</ref> and AVALON<ref>Access to Virtual and Action Learning live ONline (AVALON): http://avalon-project.ning.com/</ref> projects. NIFLAR is implemented both in Second Life and in [[OpenSimulator|Opensim]].

==Human Language Technologies==

Human Language Technologies (HLT) comprise a number of areas of research and development that focus on the use of technology to facilitate communication in a multilingual information society. Human language technologies are areas of activity in departments of the European Commission that were formerly grouped under the heading [[Language Engineering]] (Gupta & Schulze 2011: Section 1.1).<ref name=guptaschulze>Gupta P. & Schulze M. (2011) Human Language Technologies (HLT). Module 3.5 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod3-5.htm</ref>

The subset of HLT that is of greatest interest to the language teacher is [[Natural Language Processing]] (NLP), especially the areas of [[speech synthesis]], [[speech recognition]] and [[parsing]].

Speech synthesis has improved immeasurably in recent years. It is often used in electronic dictionaries to enable learners to find out how words are pronounced. At word level, speech synthesis is quite effective, the artificial voice often closely resembling a human voice. At phrase level and sentence level, however, there are often problems of intonation, resulting in speech production that sounds unnatural even though it may be intelligible. Speech synthesis as embodied in [[Text To Speech]] (TTS) applications is invaluable as a tool for unsighted or partially sighted people. Gupta & Schulze (2010: Section 4.1) list several examples of speech synthesis applications.<ref name=guptaschulze/>

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Speech recognition is less advanced than speech synthesis. It has been used in a number of CALL programs, in which it is usually described as [[Automatic Speech Recognition]] (ASR). ASR is not easy to implement. Ehsani & Knodt (1998) summarise the core problem as follows:

"Complex cognitive processes account for the human ability to associate acoustic signals with meanings and intentions. For a computer, on the other hand, speech is essentially a series of digital values. However, despite these differences, the core problem of speech recognition is the same for both humans and machines: namely, of finding the best match between a given speech sound and its corresponding word string. Automatic speech recognition technology attempts to simulate and optimize this process computationally."<ref name=ehsaniknodt>Ehsani F. & Knodt E. (1998) "Speech technology in computer-aided language learning: strengths and limitations of a new CALL paradigm", ''Language Learning and Technology'' 2, 1: 45–60 [Online]: http://llt.msu.edu/vol2num1/article3/index.html</ref>

Programs embodying ASR normally provide a native speaker model that the learner is requested to imitate, but the matching process is not 100% reliable and may result in a learner's perfectly intelligible attempt to pronounce a word or phrase being rejected (Davies 2010: Section 3.4.6 and Section 3.4.7).<ref name=daviesmodmm/>

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==Impact==

The question of the impact of CALL in language learning and teaching has been raised at regular intervals ever since computers first appeared in educational institutions (Davies & Hewer 2011: Section 3).<ref name=ict4ltmod11>Davies G. & Hewer S. (2011) Introduction to new technologies and how they can contribute to language learning and teaching. Module 1.1 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-1.htm</ref> Recent large-scale impact studies include the study edited by Fitzpatrick & Davies (2003)<ref>Fitzpatrick A. & Davies G. (eds.) (2003) ''The impact of Information and Communications Technologies on the teaching of foreign languages and on the role of teachers of foreign languages'', EC Directorate General of Education and Culture.</ref> and the EACEA (2009) study,<ref>Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) of the European Commission (2009) ''Study on the impact of ICT and new media on language learning'' [Online]: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/llp/studies/study_impact_ict_new_media_language_learning_en.php</ref> both of which were produced for the European Commission.

A distinction needs to be made between the impact and the effectiveness of CALL. Impact may be measured quantitatively and qualitatively in terms of the uptake and use of ICT in teaching foreign languages, issues of availability of hardware and software, budgetary considerations, Internet access, teachers’ and learners' attitudes to the use of CALL,<ref>{{cite journal|last=mahmoudi|first=elham|title=Attitude and student's performance in Computer Assisted English Language Learning (CALL) for Learning Vocabulary|journal=procedia social and behavioral science|date=June 30, 2012|volume=66|pages=489–498|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042812052780}}</ref> changes in the ways in which languages are learnt and taught, and paradigm shifts in teachers’ and learners’ roles. Effectiveness, on the other hand, usually focuses on assessing to what extent ICT is a more effective way of teaching foreign languages compared to using traditional methods - and this is more problematic as so many variables come into play. Worldwide, the picture of the impact of CALL is extremely varied. Most developed nations work comfortably with the new technologies, but developing nations are often beset with problems of costs and broadband connectivity. Evidence on the effectiveness of CALL - as with the impact of CALL - is extremely varied and many research questions still need to be addressed and answered. Hubbard (2002) presents the results of a CALL research survey that was sent to 120 CALL professionals from around the world asking them to articulate a CALL research question they would like to see answered. Some of the questions have been answered but many more remain open.<ref>Hubbard P. (2002) ''Survey of unanswered questions in Computer Assisted Language Learning: Effectiveness issues'' [Online]: http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callsurvey/index.html</ref> Leakey (2011) offers an overview of current and past research in CALL and proposes a comprehensive model for evaluating the effectiveness of CALL platforms, programs and pedagogy.<ref>Leakey J. (2011) ''Evaluating Computer Assisted Language Learning: an integrated approach to effectiveness research in CALL'', Bern: Peter Lang.</ref>

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LET: The Japan Association for Language Education and Technology (LET), formerly known as the Language Laboratory Association (LLA), and now embraces a wider range of language learning technologies.

PacCALL: The Pacific Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning, promoting CALL in the Pacific, from East to Southeast Asia, Oceania, across to the Americas. Organises the Globalization and Localization in Computer-Assisted Language Learning (GLoCALL) conference jointly with APACALL.

WorldCALL: A worldwide umbrella association of CALL associations. The first WorldCALL conference was held at the University of Melbourne in 1998. The second WorldCALL conference took place in Banff, Canada, 2003. The third WorldCALL took place in Japan in 2008. The fourth WorldCALL conference will take place in Glasgow, Scotland, 2013.