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== Inheritance customs as a cultural dimension ==
Inheritance customs do not follow clear ethnic, linguistic or geographical patterns. Equality between all sons and a subordinate position of women, with the exclusion of daughters from inheriting, are prominent aspects of [[Hungarian culture|Hungarian]],<ref>{{cite web|title= Four Household Systems and the Lives of the Old in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Hungary |author= Andorka, Rudolf |url= http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft096n99tf&chunk.id=d0e8378&toc.id=d0e8378&brand=ucpress}}</ref> [[Albanians|Albanian]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Albania: Family, Society and Culture in the 20th Century |author= Hemming, Andreas; Kera, Gentiana and Pandelejmoni, Enriketa |publisher= LIT Verlag Münster |pages=71|year=2012|isbn= 9783643501448}}</ref> [[Romanian culture|Romanian]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Marriage Strategies and Sequels: Prosperity or Conflict between Relatives (Romania, 18th century) |author= Vintilă-Ghiţulescu, Constanţa| publisher=“Nicolae Iorga” Institute of History, Bucharest Faculty of Literature, Department of European Studies, University of Bucharest|url=http://www.ub.edu/tig/GWBNet/MinhoPapers/Constanta%20Ghitulescu.pdf}}</ref> and most [[Slavic culture|Slavic]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Household and Family in the Balkans: Two Decades of Historical Family Research|author=Kaser, Karl|pages=181|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|year=2012|isbn=9783643504067}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Peasant Inheritance Strategies in Russia|url=http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/204320?uid=3737952&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21101837948093}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Power and inheritance Male domination, property, and family in eastern Europe, 1500–1900|author=Kaser, Karl|journal=The History of the Family|year=2002|volume=7|issue=3|pages=275–395|doi= 10.1016/S1081-602X(02)00109-4 }}</ref> or Latin American cultures,<ref>{{cite book | title=Familia y parentesco en México y Mesoamérica: unas miradas antropológicas | publisher=Universidad Iberoamericana | author=Robichaux, David | year=2005 | pages=196 | isbn=9789688595732}}</ref>. While many studies show the privileged position that the eldest son traditionally enjoyed in [[Slovene culture|Slovene]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Social Context of Changes in Slovene Agriculture Since Feudalism | author=Turk, Jernej | journal=Journal for General Social Issues | year=2007 | issue=1-2 | pages=199-212}}</ref> [[Finnish culture|Finnish]]<ref name="middleborns">{{cite journal | title=Middleborns Disadvantaged? Testing Birth-Order Effects on Fitness in Pre-Industrial Finns | author=Faurie, Charlotte; Russell, Andrew F.; Lummaa, Virpi | journal=PLOS One | year=2009 | month=May | volume=4 | issue=5 | pages=e5680 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005680}}</ref> or [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] culture.<ref>{{cite book | title=Buddhist Western Himalaya: A politico-religious history | publisher=Indus Publishing | author=Hāṇḍā, Omacanda | year=2001 | pages=113 | isbn=9788173871245}}</ref> The [[Jaintia people|Jaintia]], the [[Garo people|Garo]] and the [[Khasi people|Khasi]], on the other hand, traditionally privileged the youngest daughter. Some peoples, like the Dinka,<ref>{{cite book | title=Divinity and Experience : The Religion of the Dinka: The Religion of the Dinka | author=Lienhardt, Godfrey | year=1961 | pages=82 | isbn= 9780191591853|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> the [[Rakhine people|Arakanese]],<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.arakanmusic.com/books/hill_tribes_of_nothern_aracan.pdf | title=A Short Account of the Hill Tribes of North Aracan. | author=St. Andrew, R. F. | journal=The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland | year=1873 | volume=2 | pages=233-247}}</ref> the [[Chin peoples|Chins]] of Myanmar,<ref>{{cite book | title=System, Structure, and Contradiction: The Evolution of "Asiatic" Social Formations | publisher=Rowman Altamira | author=Friedman, Jonathan | year=1998 | pages=247 | isbn=9780761989349}}</ref> or the [[Karen people|Karen]], frequently show a compromise between primogeniture and ultimogeniture in their inheritance patterns. Although among many [[Chins]] of Myanmar, the advantage that the eldest and the youngest son have over other sons is really small, so it is not correct to speak of a true pattern of mixed primogeniture and ultimogeniture. The advantage of the eldest and the youngest son is somewhat more ample among the Dinka and the [[Rakhine people|Arakanese]]. The compromise between primogeniture and ultimogeniture was also found among the [[Kachin people|Kachin]] and the [[Dilling people|Dilling]], as well as among the [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]] to some degree. This pattern of inheritance is also reported for many Fulbe villages in the Republic of Guinea,<ref>{{cite book | title=Serfs, Peasants, and Socialists: A Former Serf Village in the Republic of Guinea | publisher=University of California Press | author=Derman, William and Derman, Louise | year=1973 | pages=80 | isbn=9780520017283}}</ref> though it seems that in past times the eldest son inherited all in Guinea.<ref>{{cite book | title=A new voyage to Guinea: describing the customs, manners, soil, manual arts, agriculture, trade, employments, languages, ranks of distinction climate, habits, buildings, education, habitations, diversions, marriages, and whatever else is memorable among the inhabitants | publisher=Princeton University | author=Smith, William | year=1745 | pages=202}}</ref>
Inheritance customs do not follow clear ethnic, linguistic or geographical patterns. Equality between all sons and a subordinate position of women (with the exclusion of daughters from inheriting) are prominent aspects of [[Hungarian culture|Hungarian]],<ref>{{cite web|title= Four Household Systems and the Lives of the Old in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Hungary |author= Andorka, Rudolf |url= http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft096n99tf&chunk.id=d0e8378&toc.id=d0e8378&brand=ucpress}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Aging in the Past: Demography, Society, and Old Age|author = Kertzer, David I. and Laslett, Peter|pages=136|publisher= University of California Press|year=1995|isbn= 9780520084667}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The transmission of land and marriage strategies in a Hungarian region (Torna county) in the 19th century|author= Pozsgai, Péter (Corvinus University Budapest, Hungary) |url=http://www.ub.edu/tig/GWBNet/MinhoPapers/Pozsgai_paper_A34_Minho.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Aiding and aging: the coming crisis in support for the elderly by kin and state|author=
Mogey, John M. and Cseh-Szombathy, László|pages=11|publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1990|isbn= 9780313273155}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Regulating Bodies: Everyday Crime and Popular Resistance in Communist Hungary, 1948—1956|publisher=ProQuest|year=2007|author= Brown, Karl William |pages=167|isbn=9780549380849}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe 1850-1914|pages=287|publisher =Routledge|author=Milward, Alan| year =2011|isbn=9780415616133}}</ref> [[Albanians|Albanian]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Albania: Family, Society and Culture in the 20th Century |author= Hemming, Andreas; Kera, Gentiana and Pandelejmoni, Enriketa |publisher= LIT Verlag Münster |pages=71|year=2012|isbn= 9783643501448}}</ref> [[Romanian culture|Romanian]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Marriage Strategies and Sequels: Prosperity or Conflict between Relatives (Romania, 18th century) |author= Vintilă-Ghiţulescu, Constanţa| publisher=“Nicolae Iorga” Institute of History, Bucharest Faculty of Literature, Department of European Studies, University of Bucharest|url=http://www.ub.edu/tig/GWBNet/MinhoPapers/Constanta%20Ghitulescu.pdf}}</ref> and most [[Slavic culture|Slavic]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Household and Family in the Balkans: Two Decades of Historical Family Research|author=Kaser, Karl|pages=181|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|year=2012|isbn=9783643504067}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Peasant Inheritance Strategies in Russia|url=http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/204320?uid=3737952&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21101837948093}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title= Customary Law and Property Devolution among Russian Peasants in the 1870s |author=Worobec, Christine|url=https://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/csparxiv/members/Issues/1984_26_2_3/1984_26_2_3_220_Worobec.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Family Forms in Historic Europe |author= Wall, Richard; Robin, Jean and Laslett, Peter| publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=105|year=1983|isbn= 9780521245470}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Russian post-emancipation household two villages in the Moscow area |author= Kolle, Herdis |publisher=HovudoppgÂve i historie Historisk institutt Bergen |date=1995 |url=https://bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/1203/Hovedoppgave-kolle.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Custom and Law in Marriage and Family Relations Among Russian Peasants During the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century|author= Kryukova, S.S.|url=http://www.jlp.bham.ac.uk/volumes/46/kryukova-art.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Patriarchy on Trial: Suicide, Discipline, and Governance in Imperial Russia|author= Morrissey, Susan|publisher=University College London |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/13003/1/13003.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Sanu the Legal Structure of Households in Serbia and Bulgaria in the 19th Century|author= Svirčević, Miroslav |publisher=Balkanološki institut |url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0350-7653/2003/0350-76530334285S.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Power and inheritance Male domination, property, and family in eastern Europe, 1500–1900|author=Kaser, Karl|journal=The History of the Family|year=2002|volume=7|issue=3|pages=275–395|doi= 10.1016/S1081-602X(02)00109-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Families and mountains in the Balkans Christian and Muslim household structures in the Rhodopes, 19th–20th century|author= Brunnbauer, Ulf |journal=The History of the Family|year=2002|volume=7|issue=3|pages=327–350|doi= 10.1016/S1081-602X(02)00107-0 }}</ref><ref>cite Land Fragmentation in Bulgaria: Reconsidering Its Measurement and Extent Natalia Boliari http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/res/article/view/22301</ref> or Latin American<ref>David Robichaux: Sistemas familiares en culturas subalternas de América Latina: una propuesta conceptual y un bosquejo preliminar</ref><ref>Familia y parentesco en México y Mesoamérica: unas miradas antropológicas editado por David Robichaux http://books.google.es/books?id=ATDU1kY6ttkC&pg=PA196&lpg=PA196&dq=%22A+diferencia+de+la+residencia,+de+la+cual+abundan%22&source=bl&ots=sEuz13Gfka&sig=oDuDeI4eAChfVd6WxIP6reUydng&hl=es&sa=X&ei=9eh7UYrWHdK1hAego4DQDA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22A%20diferencia%20de%20la%20residencia%2C%20de%20la%20cual%20abundan%22&f=false</ref><ref>Familia y parentesco en México y Mesoamérica: unas miradas antropológicas editado por David Robichaux http://books.google.es/books?id=ATDU1kY6ttkC&pg=PA250&lpg=PA250&dq=%22Tlaxcala%22+%22hijo+mayor%22+%22herencia%22&source=bl&ots=sEuy3-Imjb&sig=-h_j0_UMXGjUADibZc2fAVrDn_w&hl=es&sa=X&ei=OCJvUZ_ONNSChQe-mYCoDg&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Tlaxcala%22%20%22hijo%20mayor%22%20%22herencia%22&f=false</ref><ref>FAMILIA Y PARENTESCO EN MÉXICO Y MESOAMÉRICA. UNAS MIRADAS ANTROPOLÓGICAS Sobre el libro de David Robichaux1</ref><ref>EL NUEVO MARCO DE RELACIONES INTERGENERACIONALES LUIS ALBERTO DEL REY POVEDA* El nuevo marco de relaciones intergeneracionales en las familias ejidales: migración y herencia en el sur de Veracruz http://www.pa.gob.mx/publica/rev_28/luis%20alberto%20del%20rey.pdf</ref><ref>El destino de la tierra en las ex-repúblicas de indios: tenencia y herencia en el área cultural mesoamericano. Robichaux, David Posgrado en Antropología Social Universidad Iberoamericana, México, D.F.</ref> cultures, for example, while many studies show the privileged position that the eldest son traditionally enjoyed in [[Slovene culture|Slovene]]<ref>THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF CHANGES IN SLOVENE AGRICULTURE SINCE FEUDALISM hrcak.srce.hr/file/29517</ref> [[Finnish culture|Finnish]]<ref name="transmission">The transmission of well- being, marriage and inheritance – Siblings and family property in 18th and 19th century Finland and Sweden Beatrice Moring University of Cambridge http://www.ub.edu/tig/GWBNet/MinhoPapers/Beatrice%20Moring.pdf</ref><ref name="middleborns">Middleborns Disadvantaged? Testing Birth-Order Effects on Fitness in Pre-Industrial Finns http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0005680</ref><ref name="elder">Are elder siblings helpers or competitors? Antagonistic fitness effects of sibling interactions in humans http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/280/1750/20122313.full.pdf+html</ref><ref name="lifespan">Selection for long lifespan in men: benefits of grandfathering? M Lahdenperä*, A.F Russell and V Lummaa http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1624/2437.full.pdf+html</ref>
<ref name="sons">Producing sons reduces lifetime reproductive ▼success of subsequent offspring in ▼pre-industrial Finns http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1628/2981.full.pdf+html</ref><ref>The Dynamics of the Finnish Migration to America and the Development of Emigration Databases http://www.migrationinstitute.fi/articles/067_Heikkila-Uschanov.pdf</ref><ref name="Kaukianen">Kaukiainen, Yrjö. 1987. "Population growth and land availability in southeast Finland 1750-1840"</ref> or [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]]<ref>Buddhist Western Himalaya: A Politico-Religious History Written By Omacanda Hāṇḍā http://books.google.es/books?id=R4VuovXa5YUC&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=%22The+king+also+ensured+that+the+precious+agricultural%22&source=bl&ots=IbHPdrNV0U&sig=kYorD-m7lTkYS8ZCRIfpPyFUzYQ&hl=es&sa=X&ei=hb93UbKIE4iShge-84Bg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20king%20also%20ensured%20that%20the%20precious%20agricultural%22&f=false</ref><ref name="polyandry">Why Polyandry Fails: Sources of Instability in Polyandrous Marriages Nancy E. Levine; Joan B. Silk http://www.case.edu/affil/tibet/tibetanSociety/documents/02.pdf</ref><ref>Tibetan Fraternal Polyandry: A Review of its Advantages and Breakdown Jeff Willet http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1112&context=nebanthro</ref><ref>When Brothers Share a Wife http://anthropologyman.com/files/15_When_Brothers_Share_a_Wife.pdf</ref><ref>Tibet: The Country and Its Inhabitants Written by Fernand Grenard http://books.google.es/books?id=cwTBgOI2-CkC&pg=PA184&lpg=PA184&dq=%22Tibetan+custom%22+%22eldest+son%22&source=bl&ots=DjE_2mttXq&sig=VRux2tYp67UOZsPlu1IMq2eIphQ&hl=es&sa=X&ei=IKNbUcaQH_Oe7Abh2oHQDQ&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Tibetan%20custom%22%20%22eldest%20son%22&f=false</ref><ref>Solidarity written by K. Bayertz http://books.google.es/books?id=RQBHJMDuGLEC&pg=PA160&lpg=PA160&dq=%22Tibet%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=Qv7XIAPUaq&sig=sFsQeNxesAXK3HaTc6iKPik87M0&hl=es&sa=X&ei=x6NbUeWEIueV7AakhIDgCQ&ved=0CF8Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22Tibet%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref><ref>The Oriental, the Ancient and the Primitive: Systems of Marriage the Family in the Pre-Industrial Societies of Eurasia Written by Jack Goody http://books.google.es/books?id=Tdgos7fWazIC&pg=PA139&lpg=PA139&dq=%22Tibet%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=MGE6MPwqFH&sig=T6MSpWq7rN7G7EIdVuHJ-iYgTpk&hl=es&sa=X&ei=x6NbUeWEIueV7AakhIDgCQ&ved=0CGcQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=%22Tibet%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref><ref>Polyandry and population growth in a historical Tibetan society Geoff Childs http://www.case.edu/affil/tibet/booksAndPapers/childs.polyandry.and.population.growth.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~gchilds/publications/articles/G.Childs%20Migration%20as%20Process.pdf</ref><ref>http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_20_02_03.pdf</ref><ref>http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_134_06.pdf</ref><ref>In a Tibetan Village http://www.tibetanhistory.net/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Ramble-Status-and-death.pdf</ref><ref>Tibetan Buddhism Monasticism http://www.case.edu/affil/tibet/booksAndPapers/buddhistmonasticism.PDF</ref><ref name="faculty.washington">Is Tibetan polyandry adaptive? Methodological and metatheoretical Analyses Eric Alden Smith University of Washington http://faculty.washington.edu/easmith/Polyandry-HN1998.pdf</ref> culture. The [[Jaintia people|Jaintia]], the [[Garo people|Garo]] and the [[Khasi people|Khasi]], on the other hand, traditionally privileged the youngest daughter. Some peoples, like the Dinka,<ref>Divinity and Experience : The Religion of the Dinka: The Religion of the Dinka written by por Godfrey Lienhardt http://books.google.es/books?id=z7Y4X9kHeU8C&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=%22Dinka%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=L3OMcEbbbr&sig=aU42PQbNx2MLvYnAPaKRpkmXg6Q&hl=es&sa=X&ei=QwxoUeaKI4PJhAfTkYGIBA&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Dinka%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref><ref>Human Rights, Southern Voices: Francis Deng, Abdullahi An-Na'im, Yash Ghai … Written by William Twining http://books.google.es/books?id=WTBZTNPLOGEC&pg=PA48&lpg=PA48&dq=%22Dinka%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=zmOuA059Kq&sig=vez_nFXpVLArTC32aiLNEXiE7II&hl=es&sa=X&ei=dHl6UaebHdPb7AbR54HwBQ&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22Dinka%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref><ref name="books.google_a">Customary Law in the Modern World: The Crossfire of Sudan's War of Identities Written By Francis Deng http://books.google.es/books?id=AcRfaVfD3i8C&pg=PA122&lpg=PA122&dq=%22Dinka%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=77JFYXlbVa&sig=jBoRZMsEVa9nCAFAPIPTryrC_1w&hl=es&sa=X&ei=xsYcUpKJOIiv7Aa7r4HQBg&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22Dinka%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref><ref name="Deng">Customary Law In The Cross Fire Of Sudan’s War Of Identities By Francis M. Deng http://s4rsa.wikispaces.com/file/view/Customary+Law+in+the+Cross+fire.doc</ref> the [[Rakhine people|Arakanese]],<ref>http://www.arakanmusic.com/books/hill_tribes_of_nothern_aracan.pdf</ref> the [[Chin peoples|Chins]] of Myanmar,<ref>System, Structure, and Contradiction: The Evolution of "Asiatic" Social … http://books.google.es/books?id=c8Ys-px62PEC&pg=PA247&lpg=PA247&dq=%22Chin%22+%22ultimogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=DAxtI_xe9t&sig=nP58qFww9b0t192K9uMb3jCgbZw&hl=es&sa=X&ei=L-xvUa2TJoW1hAfCsoAg&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22Chin%22%20%22ultimogeniture%22&f=false</ref> or the [[Karen people|Karen]], frequently show a compromise between primogeniture and ultimogeniture in their inheritance patterns. Although among many [[Chins]] of Myanmar, the advantage that the eldest and the youngest son have over other sons is really small, so it is not correct to speak of a true pattern of mixed primogeniture and ultimogeniture. The advantage of the eldest and the youngest son is somewhat more ample among the Dinka and the [[Rakhine people|Arakanese]]). The compromise between primogeniture and ultimogeniture was also found among the [[Kachin people|Kachin]] and the [[Dilling people|Dilling]], as well as among the [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]] to some degree. This pattern of inheritance is also reported for many Fulbe villages in the Republic of Guinea,<ref>Serfs, Peasants and Socialists: A Former Serf Village in the Republic of Guinea Written By Derman, William http://books.google.es/books?id=Wr745AMRf2gC&pg=PA80&lpg=PA80&dq=%22Guinea%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=x0obAtEgoM&sig=HpQROp4m_4CavbH7OnP14YXPSjY&hl=es&sa=X&ei=LriQUcugOdKxhAfcsoH4AQ&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Guinea%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref> though it seems that in past times the eldest son inherited all in Guinea.<ref>A new voyage to Guinea: describing the customs, manners, soil, manual arts … Written By William Smith (surveyor.) http://books.google.es/books?id=okpWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA202&lpg=PA202&dq=%22Guinea%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=O0TiTBEoWB&sig=eMUvltJg3oUUGUiLpJSU974qZdk&hl=es&sa=X&ei=I0aMUuDhHY_xhQen94DQBQ&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Guinea%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref>
Sometimes inheritance customs do not entirely reflect social traditions. Romans valued sons more than daughters, and Thais and [[Shan people|Shan]] showed the reverse pattern, though all practiced equal land inheritance between all children.<ref>Thailand InheritanceThe and[[Shan Successionpeople]], Bhassornwho Limanonda,live mostly in northern Thailand and northeastern Myanmar, are markedly matrilocal.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Stem Family in Eurasian Perspective: Revisiting House Societies, 17th-20th …Centuries | Writtenpublisher=Peter ByLang Antoinette| author=Fauve-chamouxChamoux,Emiko OchiaiAntoinette http://books.google.es/books?id=kcJkkBG8FygC&pg=PA470&lpg=PA470&dq=%22Thailand%22+%22succession+and+transfer+of+inheritance%22&source=bl&ots=BMkh9oNG3u&sig=2bznfslVcTQra8y30030Sullwqo&hl=es&sa=X&ei=LNh_UbTVD6au7AarkoGwAg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Thailand%22%20%22succession%20and%20transfer%20of%20inheritance%22&f=false</ref><ref>Thailand: BuddhismOchiai, Society,Emiko and| Womenyear=2009 Written| Bypages=470-471 Alexandra| Kapur-Fic http://books.google.es/books?id=kaBW8Ao-18oC&pg=PA73&lpg=PA73&dq=%22Citing+the+examples+from+a+Chiang+Mai+village%22&source=bl&ots=uSJVPITciY&sig=Kuhxlszf3pzgRP8NtFs2-YNJESM&hl=es&sa=X&ei=aH2EUd7tFdKLhQfd1oCAAQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Citing%20the%20examples%20from%20a%20Chiang%20Mai%20village%22&fisbn=false9783039117390}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book | title=Anthropological Demography: Toward a New Synthesis | Writtenpublisher=University Byof DavidChicago I.Press | author=Kertzer,Thomas EarlDavid Fricke http://booksI.google.es/books?id=NTk-o1tn6CwC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22Thailand%22+%22youngest+daughter%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=sX09kc4BO3&sig=odB9m65LHLc_q38f2KIJWqlJbLM&hl=es&sa=X&ei=r36EUZSoC4yFhQe7wIGQBQ&ved=0CFcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22Thailand%22%20%22youngest%20daughter%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref><ref>Did Ancientand RomansFricke, LoveThomas TheirEarl Children?| year=1997 Infanticide| inpages=62 Ancient| Rome By Mindy Nichols https://www.wou.edu/las/socsci/history/thesis%2008/MindyNicholsThesis.pdfisbn=9780226431956}}</ref> The [[Shan people]], who live mostly in northern Thailand and northeastern Myanmar, are markedly matrilocal.
In Han Chinese tradition, the eldest son was of special importance. The law punished more harshly offences by a younger brother against an elder brother than vice versa.<ref>{{cite book | title=Brothers: On His Brothers and Brothers in History Written| Bypublisher=Simon and Schuster | author=Colt, George Howe Colt| http://books.google.es/books?idyear=h2DgQ--NqMMC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq2012 | pages=%22Differential+treatment+of+siblings+according+to+birth+order%22&source=bl&ots=2hlakJS8H3&sig=6hCEDYgE0BtPi6Wa2f9-FxB5BZ0&hl=es&sa=X&ei=NtvfUt33DZSthQfemYCoAQ&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Differential%20treatment%20of%20siblings%20according%20to%20birth%20order%22&f56 | isbn=false9781451697667}}</ref> The eldest son received the family headship in cases where the family held together as a single unit, and the largest share in cases of family division, since he also inherited the cult to family ancestors.<ref name="fateandfortune">{{cite book | title=Fate and Fortune in Rural China: Social organizationOrganization and populationPopulation behaviorBehavior in Liaoning, 1774–1873.1774-1873 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | author=Lee, James Z. Leeand Campbell, Cameron D. Campbell| http://books.google.es/books?idyear=-pybannCO7wC&pg2007 | pages=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=%22Fate+and+fortune+in+rural+china%22+%22eldest+son%22&source=bl&ots=njf8MWFdG3&sig=Z6fZK4h-XYvbupjWupv7CucBuU8&hl=es&sa=X&ei=9TpaUdLxAuKN7QaO-oGoBQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Fate%20and%20fortune%20in%20rural%20china%22%20%22eldest%20son%22&f105 | isbn=false9780521039697}}</ref><ref>The SaltThis Merchantsis ofstill Tianjin: State Making and Civil Societypracticed in LateTaiwan …nowadays,<ref>{{cite conference Written by Kwan Man Bun| url=http://bookswww.googlewbiworldconpro.escom/books?id=sJ4s72IHh4sC&pg=PA172&lpg=PA172&dq=%22China%22+%22firstborn%22+%22extra+share%22&source=bl&ots=ATnA1JC8uploads/bangkok-Y&sig=BIzgWM8j3iu7JdYhTkHnzdeTb2s&hl=es&sa=X&ei=4aZ5UaWzEIWK7AasvYGQAQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22China%22%20%22firstborn%22%20%22extra%20share%22&f=false<conference-2013/management/ref><ref>The1364451871_422-Yu-Hsu.pdf Chinese:| Atitle=Revisiting Generalthe DescriptionI ofssues Regarding the EmpireInheritance ofSystem Chinain andthe ItsChinese …,Family VolumenBusiness 1| Writtenaccessdate=6 ByJune John2014 F.| Davis http://books.google.es/books?idauthor=9g5BAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA284&lpg=PA284&dq=%22China%22+double+portion%22+%22eldest+son%22&source=bl&ots=asDBKrgHNx&sig=XZfQFVx6z1xkJtkATTZmafhq_9U&hl=es&sa=X&ei=EiOrUemQNIWB7QajroCACg&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAjgU#v=onepage&q=%22China%22%20double%20portion%22%20%22eldest%20son%22&f=false</ref>Hsu, ThisYu is- stillHsu practicedSean inand Taiwan nowadaysChang,<ref>Revisiting theConnie Issues| Regardingbooktitle=Proceedings theof Inheritance8th SystemAsian inBusiness theResearch ChineseConference Family| Businessyear=2013 Yu-Hsu| Seanmonth=April Hsu| and___location=Bangkok, ConnieThailand, Chang| http://www.wbiworldconpro.com/uploads/bangkok-conference-2013/management/1364451871_422-Yu-Hsu.pdfISBN=9781922069207}}</ref> though Chinese peasants have practiced partible inheritance since the time of the [[Qin Dynasty|Qin]] and the [[Han Dynasty|Han Dynasties]], when the previous system of male primogeniture was abolished.<ref>{{cite book | title=Nested Political Coalitions: Nation, Regime, Program, Cabinet Written| Bypublisher=Greenwood TerrencePublishing E.Group Cook| http://books.google.es/books?idauthor=rV6OHa0a7HsC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=%22Qin+Dynasty%22+%22primogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=cwJQKKXyWT&sig=viYB5QL8UCoreanfBrhY0j0N0XE&hl=es&sa=X&ei=i8K4UtLvOqem0QXRzIEg&ved=0CDUQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=%22Qin%20Dynasty%22%20%22primogeniture%22&f=false</ref><ref>The Earth and Its Peoples. Written By Richard BullietCook,Pamela KyleTerrence Crossley,Daniel RE. Headrick,Steven| W.year=2002 Hirsch,Lyman| L. Johnson,David Northrup http://books.google.es/books?idpages=-T4FAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=%22Qin+Dynasty%22+%22primogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=YCGLgygT-1&sig=1ZJKtkK-QqaUzsGRucEf5r3T9es&hl=es&sa=X&ei=i8K4UtLvOqem0QXRzIEg&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCDgK#v=onepage&q=%22Qin%20Dynasty%22%20%22primogeniture%22&f=false</ref><ref>China's118 Geography:| Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic ... Written By Gregory Veeck,Clifton W. Pannell,Christopher J. Smith,Youqin Huang http://books.google.es/books?id=K3XdB5o4VFAC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=%22Han+Dynasty%22+%22primogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=cR97bK8vKU&sig=2keiQLLiUk6wX52usquqRdCu9bI&hl=es&sa=X&ei=M8a4UtC9L4aK0AWS-4HoDQ&ved=0CDYQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=%22Han%20Dynasty%22%20%22primogeniture%22&fisbn=false9780275973957}}</ref> In some cases, the eldest son of the eldest son, rather than the eldest son, was favored.<ref>{{cite book | title=Fenjia: householdHousehold divisionDivision and inheritanceInheritance in Qing and Republican China | Writtenpublisher=University Byof DavidHawaii Press | author=Wakefield, http://books.google.es/books?idDavid | year=o2c26kQGZIIC&pg1998 | pages=PA156&lpg=PA156&dq=%22China%22+%22eldest+grandson%22+%22share%22&source=bl&ots=0R77EOs23u&sig=AQtUnR4bYt_1_hRN-yeHkLKy1Pw&hl=es&sa=X&ei=xaV5UdfXH6SJ7Aay14GwBg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22China%22%20%22eldest%20grandson%22%20%22share%22&f156 | isbn=false9780824820923}}</ref> Ritual primogeniture was emphasized in the lineage organizations of North China.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book | title=Kinship, Contract, Community, Andand State: Anthropological Perspectives Onon China | Writtenpublisher=Stanford byUniversity Press | author=Cohen, Myron L. Cohen| http://books.google.es/books?idyear=sBBbfCx3gzwC&pg2005 | pages=PA165&lpg=PA165&dq=%22north+china%22+%22lineage%22+%22eldest+son%22&source=bl&ots=rYGtnhU6M5&sig165 | isbn=GIplWa5ykYaE7qZV8XP9DolOU1U&hl=es&sa=X&ei=lzx_UauLCc2KOLfUgegF&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22north%20china%22%20%22lineage%22%20%22eldest%20son%22&f=false9780804750677}}</ref> During the [[Longshan culture]] period and the period of the three Dynasties ([[Xia dynasty|Xia]], [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] and [[Shang dynasty|Shang]]), patrilineal primogeniture predominated.<ref>{{cite book | title=Archaeological Thought in America edited| bypublisher=Cambridge C.University C.Press | author=Lamberg-Karlovsky http://books.google.es/books?id=uc3ZokKnaQYC&pg=PA160&lpg=PA160&dq=%22Three+dynasties%22+%22China%22+%22conical+clan%22&source=bl&ots=W6dN0PZp5N&sig=8A07lLbITcpTnUf42ot2s0HNIwM&hl=es&sa=X&ei=-UWwUqWRHMbR0QXRlYHAAg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Three%20dynasties%22%20%22China%22%20%22conical%20clan%22&f=false</ref><ref>China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land edited by Robert EC. Murowchick http://booksC.google.es/books?id=tO42ZlxKf4cC&pg=PA65&lpg=PA65&dq=%22Longshan+people%22+%22male+primogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=1ot2Icb86r&sig=leWF7vg0XOIFQWV6rL_4rGxYn8w&hl=es&sa=X&ei=9HmwUu7zBaH8ygO184HQBw&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Longshan%20people%22%20%22male%20primogeniture%22&f=false</ref><ref>Understanding Early| Civilizations: A Comparative Study Written By Bruce G. Trigger http://books.google.es/books?idyear=ZEX-yZOAG9IC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=%22Shang%22+%22elder+brothers%22+%22younger+brothers%22&source=bl&ots=x3Ub3ma8g4&sig=_f05twT2qPaGg7VV6QoXttgzJc8&hl=es&sa=X&ei=RR2sUvq8JZGM7Abt74Aw&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Shang%22%20%22elder%20brothers%22%20%22younger%20brothers%22&f=false</ref><ref>Ancestral1991 Memory| in Early China Written By K. E. Brashier http://books.google.es/books?idpages=aJAMLt5NYAQC&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=%22The+White+tiger+hall+discussion+is+here%22&source=bl&ots=_v909EbDMK&sig=eOK5lPHbTo7DSSNLqHstF1mHAEg&hl=es&sa=X&ei=i6E8UpziCIbR7AatzoDwBQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20White%20tiger%20hall%20discussion%20is%20here%22&f=false</ref><ref>TAO,160 HSI-SHENG. Marriage and Family, Shanghai. 1934</ref> [[Confucius]] says that the elder brother must be in a higher position than the younger brother, and texts such as the LÎ KÎ (The Book of Rites) express this idea.<ref>{{cite web|title=The LÎ KÎ (The Book of Rites) |urlisbn=http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/liki/9780521406437}}</ref>
Among [[Mongols]] it has been usually stated that the youngest son had a special position because he cared for his parents in their old age. On their death he inherited the parental tent, which was connected with the religious cult in Mongol traditions, though all sons received more or less equal shares of livestock as they married. However, in contrast to this popularly held notion, more rigorous and substantiated anthropological studies of kinship and family in central Asian peoples strongly indicate that in these societies elder sons and their lines of descent had higher status than younger sons and their lines of descent. In central Asia, all members of a lineage were terminologically distinguished by generation and age, with senior superior to junior. The lineage structure of central Asia had three different modes: genealogical distance, or the proximity of individuals to one another on a graph of kinship; generational distance, or the rank of generation in relation to a common ancestor; and birth order, the rank of brothers in relation to each another.<ref>Cuisenier (1975:67)</ref> The paternal descent lines were collaterally ranked according to the birth of their founders, and were thus considered senior and junior to each other. Of the various collateral patrilines, the senior in order of descent from the founding ancestor, the line of eldest sons, was the most noble. In the steppe, no one had his exact equal; everyone found his place in a system of collaterally ranked lines of descent from a common ancestor.<ref>Krader (1963:322, 269)</ref> It was according to this idiom of superiority and inferiority of lineages derived from birth order that legal claims to superior rank were couched.<ref name="Kinship structure and political authority" /> Furthermore, at least among Mongols, the elder son inherited more than the younger son, and this is mandated by law codes such as the [[Yassa]], created by [[Gengis Khan]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Influence of the Great Code "Yasa" on the Mongolian Empire |url=http://www.mypolice.ca/research_and_publications/MongolianLawCodeYasa.htm}}</ref> It is likely that the widespread but mistaken conception that the Mongols practiced ultimogeniture is due to the fact that the youngest son inherited the parental tent.{{citationdead neededlink|date=MayJune 2014}}</ref>
Among [[Arabic]] peoples, it is sometimes argued that the expansion of [[Islam]] brought an end to the sharp distinction between the firstborn and other sons so characteristic of ancient [[Semitic]] peoples.<ref>{{cite book | title=Studies in Biblical Law: From the Hebrew Bible to the Dead Sea Scrolls | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | author=Brin, Gershon | year=1994 | pages=238 | isbn=9781850754848}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Jacob’s Wealth: An Examination Into the Nature and Role of Material Possessions in the Jacob-Cycle (Gen 25:19-35:29) | publisher=BRILL | author=Vrolijk, Paul | year=2011 | pages=49 | isbn=9789004203297}}</ref><ref name="Kinship structure and political authority">{{cite journal | title=Kinship Structure and Political Authority: The Middle East and central Asia | author=Lindholm, Charles | journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History | year=1986 | month=April | volume=28 | issue=2 | pages=334-355}}</ref> However, many peoples who have partially or completely embraced Islam, have also established inequality between sons, such as the [[Oromo people|Oromo]] of east Africa, who had patrilineal primogeniture in inheritance, in spite of the fact that some of them were Muslim.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Political Economy of an African Society in Tranformation: the Case of Macca Oromo (Ethiopia) | publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag | author=Ta'a, Tesema | year=2006 | pages=37 | isbn=9783447054195}}</ref> Other Muslim peoples, like the [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]] and the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] of Indonesia, the Turks, or the [[Fur people|Fur]] in Sudan, also have inheritance practices that contradict their Islamic beliefs. Most non-Arab Muslims historically followed their own inheritance customs, not those of the Sharia.
[[Arabic]] [[kinship]], in contrast to its central Asian counterpart, has been considered by some as reflective of the egalitarian nature of brothers' relationships in [[Arab]], [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian]] and [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] culture.<ref name="Kinship structure and political authority">{{cite web|title=Kinship Structure and Political Authority: The Middle East and central Asia |url= http://psychologie.dev.czu.cz/stred-asie/html/CD/stredni_asie/Kinship%20Structure%20and%20Political%20Authority-The%20Middle%20East%20an.pdf|author= Lindholm, Charles }}</ref> It is sometimes argued that the expansion of [[Islam]] brought an end to the sharp distinction between the firstborn and other sons so characteristic of ancient [[Semitic]] peoples.<ref>Studies in biblical law [electronic resource]: from the Hebrew Bible to the … Written By Gershon Brin http://books.google.es/books?id=z_iMdqTr-iMC&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238&dq=%22It+follows+from+the+biblical+law+in+deut%22&source=bl&ots=qt6iQoEwaU&sig=4xNlGWPb2SJ_41qav37VlQycDPQ&hl=es&sa=X&ei=yn6uUZjDH-nd7QbD2YGQBw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22It%20follows%20from%20the%20biblical%20law%20in%20deut%22&f=false</ref><ref>Studies in biblical law [electronic resource]: from the Hebrew Bible to the … Written By Gershon Brin http://books.google.es/books?id=z_iMdqTr-iMC&pg=PA245&lpg=PA245&dq=%22Other+approaches+regarding+the+extra+share%22&source=bl&ots=qt6iOiJueT&sig=QDto5EoWuhHurXX9f7EmHZ3DPXU&hl=es&sa=X&ei=EZqqUdVcscfsBv_-gUg&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Other%20approaches%20regarding%20the%20extra%20share%22&f=false</ref><ref>Daily life in ancient Mesopotamia Written By Karen Rhea Nemet Nejat http://books.google.es/books?id=lbmXsaTGNKUC&pg=PA147&lpg=PA147&dq=%22Each+city+followed+different+customs+concerning+inheritance%22&source=bl&ots=ds5Q2lLWup&sig=b7JoreKjTLgACFzU8FlYJsCjYv4&hl=es&sa=X&ei=2ZWMUZy6C8mJhQeHpYG4Bw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Each%20city%20followed%20different%20customs%20concerning%20inheritance%22&f=false</ref><ref>Jacob’s Wealth: An Examination Into the Nature and Role of Material … Written By Paul Vrolijk http://books.google.es/books?id=Vf-DgELK3iMC&pg=PA49&lpg=PA49&dq=%22Assyria%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inheritance%22&source=bl&ots=q2-E4X58fX&sig=27kwpmunlzUmApt5LS9zAI9bsCY&hl=es&sa=X&ei=23aWUe_yOMif7AaHvIGYCg&ved=0CFIQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=%22Assyria%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inheritance%22&f=false</ref><ref>Approaches to Akkadian Name-Giving in First-Millennium Mesopotamiax BC Heatber D. Baker – Helsinki http://www.academia.edu/284597/Baker_H.D._2002._Approaches_to_Akkadian_Name-Giving_in_First-Millennium_BC_Mesopotamia</ref><ref>The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical … Written By Thomas L. Thompson http://books.google.es/books?id=lwrzapZYqFAC&pg=PA276&lpg=PA276&dq=%22Ugarit%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22double+share%22&source=bl&ots=lLaLvYgIF7&sig=sWEH8ozT-iSxLXq-6ZUfIIcD58s&hl=es&sa=X&ei=x5aMUYTLOMyGhQeJtIDwCQ&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Ugarit%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22double%20share%22&f=false</ref><ref>The Invention of Enterprise: Entrepreneurship from Ancient Mesopotamia to … Edited By David S. Landes,Joel Mokyr,William J. Baumol http://books.google.es/books?id=6rw1fxYalfUC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22Ugarit%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22double+share%22&source=bl&ots=42fLUE1A8J&sig=8zAYxACOyAIxuhhh79I1T9skXlE&hl=es&sa=X&ei=dZeMUfCXN8XOhAeT5IHgDw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Ugarit%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22double%20share%22&f=false</ref><ref>Birth Order and Political Behavior Written By Albert Somit,Alan Arwine,Steven Ames Peterson http://books.google.es/books?id=6rw1fxYalfUC&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=%22Ugarit%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22double+share%22&source=bl&ots=42fLUE1A8J&sig=8zAYxACOyAIxuhhh79I1T9skXlE&hl=es&sa=X&ei=dZeMUfCXN8XOhAeT5IHgDw&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Ugarit%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22double%20share%22&f=false</ref><ref>Everyday Law in Biblical Israel: An Introduction Written By Raymond Westbrook,Bruce Wells, Ph.D. http://books.google.es/books?id=oLGfWXZuSMYC&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=%22Babylon%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22extra+portion%22&source=bl&ots=lgliHQt-ct&sig=6rfe1kZ1yoSVvi-jPuKwgq7drCo&hl=es&sa=X&ei=Dp2MUbmgE4aohAfWvoGgBQ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Babylon%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22extra%20portion%22&f=false</ref> It erased the cultural notions of precedence of the first-born son over other sons that previously existed among them . However, many peoples who have partially or completely embraced Islam, have also established inequality between sons, like the Oromo, who even had patrilineal primogeniture in inheritance,<ref>The Political Economy of an African Society in Transformation: The Case of … Written By Tesema Ta'a http://books.google.es/books?id=_XwN2JdMYM4C&pg=PA37&lpg=PA37&dq=%22Oromo%22+%22primogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=WFSyExDbyi&sig=lnB64Pa_mAq9_rK3GH-Vc8eLTuA&hl=es&sa=X&ei=hWz7Ub6-DKiO7QaKnYG4Ag&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Oromo%22%20%22primogeniture%22&f=false</ref><ref>Booran (Ethiopia, Kenya) written by Gemetchu Megerssa http://books.google.es/books?id=Pvy-jTk8DAQC&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=%22The+traditional+oromo+society+used+a+complex+system%22&source=bl&ots=-ZMVL_pP0e&sig=54ZvjM3mokmJ_1V_41HYeesuV5M&hl=es&sa=X&ei=xgWDUYKPBoO5hAewnIGoBQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20traditional%20oromo%20society%20used%20a%20complex%20system%22&f=false</ref><ref>GENDER AND CULTURE IN SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA: AN ETHNOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF GUJI-OROMO WOMEN’S CUSTOMARY RIGHTS Dejene N. DEBSU Department of Anthropology, Miami University http://www.africa.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kiroku/asm_normal/abstracts/pdf/30-1/DEBSU.pdf</ref><ref>STUDY ON WOMEN’S PROPERTY RIGHTS IN AFAR AND OROMIYA REGIONS, ETHIOPIA http://edu.care.org/Documents/Women%20property%20rights%20in%20Oromiya%20and%20AFar.pdf</ref><ref>Journal of Oromo studies http://www.oromostudies.org/josfiles/JOS%20VOlume%2011%20Numbers%201&2%20(2004).pdf</ref><ref>Abstract: Contested Land rights: Oromo Peasants Struggle for Livelihood in Ethiopia http://munin.uit.no/bitstream/handle/10037/153/thesis.pdf?sequence=1</ref><ref>Title: Land tenure and agriculture in Sayyoo-Afillo, Western Wallaga, Ethiopia, 1880–1974 Author(s): Ayana, Daniel http://hdl.handle.net/2142/20684</ref> in spite of the fact that some of them were Muslim. Other Muslim peoples, like the [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], the Turks, the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] or the [[Fur people|Fur]], also have inheritance practices that contradict their Islamic beliefs. Most non-Arab Muslims historically followed their own inheritance customs, not those of the Sharia.
In India, inheritance customs were (and still are) very diverse. Patrilineal primogeniture predominated in ancient times . The [[Laws of Manu]] state that "the eldestoldest aloneson mayinherits take the whole paternal estate, the others shall live under him just as they lived under their father. Immediately on the birthall of his first-born a man is called the father of a son and is freed from the debt to the manes; that son, therefore, is worthy to receive the whole's estate.<ref>{{cite Thatbook son| alonetitle=The onLaws whomof heManu throws| his debt and through whom he obtains immortality, is begotten for the fulfillmentpublisher=Library of theAlexandria law;| all the rest they consider the offspring of desire".author=Buehler,<ref>The LawsGeorg of| Manuyear=1964 edited| bypages=Law F.105 Max| Muller http://books.google.es/books?idisbn=rmLJtLYnKY0C&pg=PT205&lpg=PT205&dq=%22the+eldest+alone+may+take+the+whole+paternal+estate%22&source=bl&ots=Y0FZGTBcHb&sig=8oJaVtkPg7BlMMeyGZyjmBaVWNo&hl=es&sa=X&ei=WoygUo3RBKHH7AaThoGwAg&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22the%20eldest%20alone%20may%20take%20the%20whole%20paternal%20estate%22&f=false</ref><ref>http://210.212.115.113:81/N.Shrivastava/PGDM%202013/IMPORTANT%20LITERATURES/INTRODUCTORY%20LECTURE%20ON%20LAW.pdf9781465536952}}</ref> Since the Middle Ages patrilineal equal inheritance has prevailed in perhaps a majority of groups,<ref>{{cite book | title=Early Medieval Indian Society: A(pb) Study| inpublisher=Orient FeudalisationBlackswan | Written by author=Sharma, http://booksR.googleS.es/books?id | year=i_sIE1sO5kwC&pg2003 | pages=PA181&lpg=PA181&dq181 | isbn=%22Dharmasutras%22+%22eldest+son%22&source=bl&ots=QulVi3KXNC&sig=wJnUSx3nfJWpGYpkhKouZ8eEoiU&hl=es&sa=X&ei=ydxaUarGL8-V7AaIroHoDw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Dharmasutras%22%20%22eldest%20son%22&f=false9788125025238}}</ref> although the eldest son often received an extra share.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://archive.org/details/sacredlawsofarya00buhliala | title=The sacred laws of the Aryas : as taught in the schools of Apastamba, Gautama, Vasishtha and Baudhayana (1898) http://archive.org/details/sacredlawsofarya00buhliala| accessdate=6 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=North-East India: The Horizon Of Anthropology | Writtenpublisher=Gyan byPublishing KhagenHouse Chandra| author=Mahanta, http://booksK.googleC.es/books?id | year=_Ydi6Ej5U_gC&pg2008 | pages=PA23&lpg23 | isbn=PA23&dq=%22The+Dharmasutras+and+the+manusamhita%22&source=bl&ots=dDEimFJYwZ&sig=VWEjecZ5KeeQQDizOnkeoCSGN_Y&hl=es&sa=X&ei=L8FoUdLYDYWv7Ab57YDoAw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Dharmasutras%20and%20the%20manusamhita%22&f=false9788178356563}}</ref> Under this system, the estate would be shared between all sons, but these would often remain together with their respective families under the headship of the karta or family head, who was usually the eldest son of the previous family head.<ref>{{cite book | title=Industrial Families in India: An| Enquirypublisher=Concept IntoPublishing theCompany Nature| of Their Written byauthor=Verma, Harnam Singh Verma| http://books.google.es/books?idyear=fdtTJJAw110C&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=%22Eldest+son+of+the+previous+karta%22&source=bl&ots=NzGPmgouAw&sig=PChEHNnlVvOLSc1-4ZFQQTWKqjM&hl=es&sa=X&ei=dhR8UfWbCYev7AbWq4EI&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Eldest%20son%20of%20the%20previous%20karta%22&f=false</ref><ref>{{cite1985 web|title=The Indian Family |urlpages=http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/faculty/hodgson/Courses/so142/India/india.htm131}}</ref> However, among some South Asian peoples, such as the Western [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]], male primogeniture continued to prevail.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://dro.dur.ac.uk/10502/1/10502.pdf?DDD5+dan0sml+dan0sml+dan0sml | title=Networks and Kinship: Formal Models of Alliance, Descent and Inheritance in a Pakistani Punjabi Village Stephen| M.publisher=Durham University | accessdate=6 June 2014 | author=Lyon, DurhamStephen University http://droM.dur.ac.uk/10502/1/10502.pdf?DDD5+dan0sml+dan0sml+dan0sml}}</ref> male primogeniture continued to prevail.
In some cultures, such as that of [[Khmers]] and non-aristocratic [[Ethnic Malays|Malays]], [[Bugis]] and [[Makassarese]], equality between all children, both male and female, is stressed.<ref>J. Nagata Adat in the city: Some perceptions and practices among urban Malays http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/btlv/article/viewfile/1823/2584</ref><ref>21st Century Cambodia: View and Vision Written By Wim Swann http://books.google.es/books?id=IAbUcEsv-x0C&pg=PA39&lpg=PA39&dq=%22Wim+Swann%22+%22Inheritance%22+%22bilateral%22&source=bl&ots=CS_2JAsEfl&sig=3UcloOSsQPCxHP-G2tvRZn6-Ii0&hl=es&sa=X&ei=SDqEUazGCo_6sga0-IGYAQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Wim%20Swann%22%20%22Inheritance%22%20%22bilateral%22&f=false</ref>
== Fertility and marriage strategies across diverse societies ==
=== An overview ===
Among Han Chinese, first sons historically married earlier, had lower rates of definitive celibacy and had more children than their younger brothers.<ref name="books.google">Fate and Fortune in Rural China: Social Organization and Population Behavior … Written By James Z. Lee,Cameron D. Campbell http://books.google.es/books?id=-pybannCO7wC&pg=PR9&lpg=PR9&dq=%22Domestic+hierarchy+and+demographic+privilege%22&source=bl&ots=njg6NXBaJY&sig=PxXJKJov7zfNCwmovHFk2qlLb38&hl=es&sa=X&ei=8OnVUceLD8jD7AbHz4D4Ag&ved=0CFMQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=%22Domestic%20hierarchy%20and%20demographic%20privilege%22&f=false</ref> Historical differences in marriage and/or reproductive success according to sex and parity due to inegalitarian social practices have also been demonstrated in Sweden,<ref>Reproductive Life in Nineteenth Century Sweden: An evolutionary Perspective on Demographic Phenomena Bobbi S. Low http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/29060/0000093.pdf?sequence=1</ref> [[Quebec]],<ref>PARENTAL AND SIBLING INFLUENCES ON THE TIMING OF MARRIAGE, XVIITH AND XVIIITH CENTURY QUÉBEC Lisa Dillon http://www.cairn.info/resume.php?ID_ARTICLE=ADH_119_0139</ref> Norway,<ref name="stanford.edu">Have the poor always been less likely to migrate? Evidence from inheritance practices during the age of mass migration☆ Ran Abramitzky a,b, ⁎, Leah Platt Boustan b,c, Katherine Eriksson http://www.stanford.edu/~ranabr/ABE_Childhood.pdf</ref><ref name="marriage choices">Marriage Choices and Class Boundaries: Social Endogamy in History Written By Marco H. D. Van Leeuwen,Ineke Maas,Andrew Miles http://books.google.es/books?id=Kmq_ZvICBnQC&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=%22Social+homogamy%22+%22Norway%22&source=bl&ots=dMUyJWBUgl&sig=dNYDnOTyald1BEub1mawcTL4d5s&hl=es&sa=X&ei=2XGvUf6bO7CO7QbFiYCwDg&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAQ</ref><ref>Deciding Whom to Marry in a Rural Two-Class Society: Social Homogamy and Constraints in the Marriage Market in Rendalen, Norway, 1750–1900 Hans Henrik Bull http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=7DF472B2598263EACF04024BA18E5DAF.journals?fromPage=online&aid=364423</ref> Denmark,<ref>Mass Emigration from Denmark to the United States 1868–1914 by Kristian Hvidt http://ej.lib.cbs.dk/index.php/assc/article/download/2754/2788</ref><ref>Flight to America. The Social Background of 300,000 Danish Emigrants by Kristian Hvidt http://www.ebay.com/ctg/Flight-America-Social-Background-300-000-Danish-Emigrants-Kristian-Hvidt-1975-Hardcover-/1352651</ref> Finland,<ref name="transmission">The transmission of well- being, marriage and inheritance – Siblings and family property in 18th and 19th century Finland and Sweden Beatrice Moring University of Cambridge http://www.ub.edu/tig/GWBNet/MinhoPapers/Beatrice%20Moring.pdf</ref><ref name="middleborns" /><ref name="elder">Are elder siblings helpers or competitors? Antagonistic fitness effects of sibling interactions in humans http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/280/1750/20122313.full.pdf+html</ref><ref name="lifespan">Selection for long lifespan in men: benefits of grandfathering? M Lahdenperä*, A.F Russell and V Lummaa http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1624/2437.full.pdf+html</ref>
▲<ref name="sons">Producing sons reduces lifetime reproductive
<ref name="sons" /><ref name="Kaukianen" /> [[Balt]] peasants,<ref>Opening Gates to the West: Lithuanian and Jewish Migrations from the Lithuanian Provinces, 1867–1914 Tomas Balkelis University College Dublin http://ces.lt/en/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/EtSt_Balkelis_2010.pdf</ref> [[Alsace]],<ref>Family Composition, Birth Order and Marriage Patterns: Evidence from Rural Alsace, 1750–1885 http://www.cairn.info/revue-annales-de-demographie-historique-2008-1-page-57.htm</ref> French elites,<ref>http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~mariterel/Female%20Monasticism%20and%20Family%20Strategy.pdf</ref> French peasants<ref>Pierre Maranda University of British Columbia (1974) French Kinship Structure and History Chapters Three, Four, Five and Six http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.135.1962&rep=rep1&type=pdf</ref> Ireland,<ref>Marital status and birth order in a sample of Dublin males http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/handle/10197/1533/walshb_article_pub_051.pdf?sequence=3</ref> [[Wallonia]],<ref>ALTER, George, ORIS,Michel (1999), “Access to Marriage in the East Ardennes during the 19th Century”</ref><ref>BRAS, Hilde, NEVEN, Muriel (2007), «Mariage et décohabitation dans deux sociétés rurales (XIXe – XXe siècles). Frères et soeurs : rivaux ou solidaires ? » 181-218, in Les fratries : Une démographie sociale de la germanité, Michel Oris, Guy Brunet, Éric Widmer et Alain Bideau (éd.), Bern, Peter Lang.</ref> the Karo [[Batak]],<ref name="faculty.washington.edu">Resource Competition and Reproduction in Karo Batak Villages Geoff Kushnick http://faculty.washington.edu/kushnick/competition.pdf</ref> [[Ethiopian]] peasants,<ref>Land inheritance establishes sibling competition for marriage and reproduction in rural Ethiopia Mhairi A. Gibsona, and Eshetu Gurmub http://www.pnas.org/content/108/6/2200.full.pdf+html</ref><ref>STUDY ON WOMEN’S PROPERTY RIGHTS IN AFAR AND OROMIYA REGIONS, ETHIOPIA Fiona Flintan, Solomon Demlie, Mohammed Awol, Zahra Humed, Yemane Belete and Honey Lemma 2008 http://edu.care.org/Documents/Women%20property%20rights%20in%20Oromiya%20and%20AFar.pdf</ref><ref>POLYGYNY, REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS AND CHILD HEALTH IN RURAL ETHIOPIA: WHY MARRY A MARRIED MAN? MHAIRI A. GIBSONa1 and RUTH MACEa2 a1 Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Bristol, UK a2 Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, UK http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=728744</ref> the [[Jie people|Jie]] and the [[Turkana people|Turkana]],<ref>Children of the Dancing Ground, Children of the House: Costs and Benefits of Marriage Rules (South Turkana, Kenya) Rada Dyson-Hudson, Dominique Meekers and Neville Dyson-Hudson http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3631675?uid=3737952&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21102033393283</ref><ref>http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/circulation/ereserves/pdfs/courses/FALL%202007/ANTH%201150,%20MCCABE/ON%20COURSE%20NOW/CATTLE%20KEEPERS.pdf</ref><ref>Man in Adaptation: The Cultural Present edited by Yehudi A. Cohen http://books.google.es/books?id=13PoxT8kufEC&pg=PA356&lpg=PA356&dq=%22The+metamorphosis+of+the+nuclear+family-inheritance%22&source=bl&ots=cO1qLAEzlj&sig=OC3up_J4VXDIkg9ux5jmpD1t_vw&hl=es&sa=X&ei=xmcKUuOeGern7AbK_oCoAw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20metamorphosis%20of%20the%20nuclear%20family-inheritance%22&f=false</ref> the [[Datoga]],<ref>Women's strategies in polygynous marriage: Kipsigis, Datoga, and other East African cases. http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02692266.pdf</ref> [[Dominican people|Dominicans]],<ref>Local Resource Enhancement and Sex-biased Breastfeeding in a Caribbean Community robert j. quinlan, marsha b. quinlan, and mark v. flinn http://www.libarts.wsu.edu/anthro/pdf/LRE%20&%20sex%20biased%20breastfeeding.pdf</ref> the [[Polynesians]],<ref>Gender and sexuality in hierarchical societies: the case of Polynesia and some comparative implications Sherry B. Ortner http://genpent.b.uib.no/files/2013/03/article-Ortner-Gender-and-Sesuality-in-heirachical-societies.pdf</ref> Germany,<ref>Reproductive behavior of landless agricultural workers, small farmers, and the economic elite in the historical Krummhörn region [East Frisia, Germany, 1720-1870] http://www.demogr.mpg.de/papers/working/wp-2013-011.pdf</ref><ref name="persee.fr">Famille et tenure paysanne : aux origines de la guerre des Paysans en Allemagne David Sabean lien Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations lien Year 1972 lien Volume 27 lien Issue 4-5 lien pp. 903-922 http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/ahess_0395-2649_1972_num_27_4_422572</ref><ref>Verhaltensökologie menschlichen Abwanderungsverhaltens – am Beispiel der historischen Bevölkerung der Krummhörn (Ostfriesland, 18. und 19. Jahrhundert) http://bibd.uni-giessen.de/gdoc/2001/uni/d010060.pdf</ref><ref>Bäuerliches Heiratsverhalten und Stellenübertragung in den holsteinischen Elbmarschen (1650–1950) Klaus-J. Lorenzen-Schmidt∗ http://hsr-trans.zhsf.uni-koeln.de/hsrretro/docs/artikel/hsr/hsr2003_579.pdf</ref><ref>Eckart Voland lnstitut fur Anthropologie der Universitat Ghöttingen, Birgerstrasse 50, D-MOO G~ttingen, West German), Received 4 April 1983 and accepted 8 November 1983 Keywords: parental investment, infar,: mortality, sex-ratio manipulation, soeiobiology. Human Sex.Ratio Manipulation: Historical Data from a German Parish http://www.researchgate.net/publication/229105975_Human_sex-ratio_manipulation_Historical_data_from_a_german_parish/file/d912f50f90273c7a06.pdf</ref><ref>Lebensläufe, Familien, Höfe: die Bauern und Heuerleute des Osnabrückischen … edited by Jürgen Schlumbohm http://books.google.es/books?id=NYymbfiMUcAC&pg=PA379&lpg=PA379&dq=%22Belm%22+%22norm+und+praxis%22&source=bl&ots=eeK8hm3kRp&sig=BZuFP_y4ugG5dOcKyU9DDJZ0bZU&hl=es&sa=X&ei=BDdsUqzOLY6N0wXzlICACg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Belm%22%20%22norm%20und%20praxis%22&f=false</ref><ref>Rural Society and Social Networks in Nineteenth-Century Westphalia: The Role of Godparenting in Social Mobility Christine Fertig http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/jih/v039/39.4.fertig.html</ref><ref>William W. Hagen. Ordinary Prussians: Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers, 1500–1840. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item1169900/?site_locale=en_US</ref><ref>Die gesetzlich geschlossenen hofgüter des badischen Schwarzwalds http://www.archive.org/stream/diegesetzlichge00kochgoog/diegesetzlichge00kochgoog_djvu.txt</ref><ref>Mecklenburg – Ein niederdeutsches Landes- und Volksbild Autor: Fromm, L. (?), Erscheinungsjahr: 1860 http://www.lexikus.de/bibliothek/Mecklenburg-Ein-niederdeutsches-Landes-und-Volksbild</ref><ref>The Peasants of Ottobeuren, 1487–1726 Govind Paul Sreenivasan http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511496943</ref><ref>Migration decisions in Mid-Nineteenth century Germany S Wegge 1988 http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=4123092</ref> Austria,<ref>Heirat als Privileg: Obrigkeitliche Heiratsbeschrankungen in Tirol und Vorarlberg 1820 bis 1920 http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_social_history/summary/v033/33.1sperber.html</ref><ref>Family History Revisited: Comparative Perspectives edited by Richard Wall,Tamara K. Hareven,Joseph Ehmer http://books.google.es/books?id=8awruI9XyXsC&pg=PA283&lpg=PA283&dq=%22Marriage+patterns+in+central+europe%22&source=bl&ots=oKXC0SIuW7&sig=N5VbCyUOQ6Atg5THa9PdQsKHJUo&hl=es&sa=X&ei=CV2wUfDbHaON7Qb14oDwCw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Marriage%20patterns%20in%20central%20europe%22&f=false</ref><ref>Dividends of Kinship: Meanings and Uses of Social Relatedness edited by Peter P. Schweitzer http://books.google.es/books?id=5ma3Jpyhw4AC&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=%22Lower+AUstria%22+%22ultimogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=Zr9ZS1NaxU&sig=0k4ipO0QPVpuLcE1ak-qvIWuGWE&hl=es&sa=X&ei=g0egUreyCeXR7AbR34GQAg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Lower%20AUstria%22%20%22ultimogeniture%22&f=false</ref> English elites,<ref>Quinlan, Daniel C. - Shackleford, Jean A. (1994) Economy and English Families, 1500–1850, "Journal of Interdisciplinary History", 24, n. 3, pp. 431-63.</ref> [[Ancient Rome]],<ref>Roman Monogamy Laura Betzig Evolution & Human Behavior Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/29876/0000226.pdf&embedded=true?sequence=1</ref> Italian peasants,<ref>Between Constraints and Coercion. Marriage and Social Reproduction in northern and central Italy, 18th-19th centuries http://www.unive.it/media/allegato/DIP/Economia/Working_papers/Working_papers_2012/WP_DSE_derosas_breschi_fornasin_manfredini_munno_02_12.pdf</ref><ref>Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento: Essays in Honour of … Edited By John A. Davis,Paul Ginsborg http://books.google.es/books?id=5GgRamdssmkC&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=%22In+a+number+of+important+essays+John+Hajnal%22&source=bl&ots=Xoq4uyZVD1&sig=L7OmvLOBoQ_bcc3fyASiGKIZQVE&hl=es&sa=X&ei=Zw6LUd_RE4rfPf_4gNgJ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22In%20a%20number%20of%20important%20essays%20John%20Hajnal%22&f=false</ref> Italian elites,<ref>Ecclesiastical careers and the destiny of cadets Renata Ago http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=503CD049AA763C8F3DC91D05223DC791.journals?fromPage=online&aid=1829128</ref> [[Turkish people|Turkish]] nomads,<ref>Decentralized Leadership and Network Cohesion Decentralized Leadership and the Aydınlı Chapter 10 Case Analysis 18: Age Ranking and the Endoconical Clan Hypothesis 10.1: First and second sons are more important in marital relinking within the clan than are younger sons. http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/turks/Ch.-9.pdf</ref> [[Tibet]],<ref name="polyandry" /><ref name="faculty.washington" /> India,<ref>Where there is a will: Fertility behavior and sex bias in large families Tarun Jain Indian School of Business http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1367907</ref> [[Catalonia]],<ref>Eldest and younger siblings in a stem-family system: the case of rural Catalonia Andrés Barrera-González http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1829164</ref><ref>Choices and constraints: marriage and inheritance in eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century Catalonia JULIE MARFANY http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=435369&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0268416006005789</ref> [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]],<ref name="ub">{{cite web|title=Being well or survive? Heirs in northwestern Spain, 18th-19th centuries|author=Ofelia Rey Castelao|publisher=Universidad de Santiago de Compostela|url=http://www.ub.edu/tig/GWBNet/MinhoPapers/Ofelia%20Rey%20English.pdf}}</ref> the Netherlands,<ref>Sibship size and status attainment across contexts: Evidence from the Netherlands, 1840–1925 Hilde Bras Jan Kok Kees Mandemakers http://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol23/4/23-4.pdf</ref><ref>Sibling Position and Marriage Timing in the Netherlands, 1840–1922: A Comparison across Social Classes, Local Contexts, and Time http://intl-jfh.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/10/01/0363199013506986.abstract</ref><ref>Permanent Celibacy and Late Marriage in the Netherlands, 1890–1960 J. Kok , T. Engelen http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/pop_1634-2941_2003_num_58_1_18432</ref> Japan,<ref name="ReferenceB">Landholdings and the family life cycle in traditional Japan MASAO TAKAGI http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=35803</ref><ref name="wako.ac.jp">The Discovery of “Childhood” in Tokugawa Japan OHTA Motoko 太田素子 http://www.wako.ac.jp/human/kiyo/file/2011-0625-1138.pdf</ref><ref name="fl.reitaku-u.ac.jp">LEAVING HOME IN A STEM FAMILY SYSTEM: Departures of Heirs and Non-Heirs in Pre-lndustrial Japan SATOMI KUROSU http://www.fl.reitaku-u.ac.jp/~skurosu/MeMyself/Papers/Kurosu1996.pdf</ref><ref name="shinku.nichibun.ac.jp">Leaving Home in a Stem Family System: Patterns of Children's Migration in the Late-Nineteenth Century South Sama Satomi Kurosu http://shinku.nichibun.ac.jp/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ0701.pdf</ref><ref>Short tailors and sickly Buddhist priests: birth order and household effects on class and health in Japan, 1893–1943 Gail Honda http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1830284</ref><ref>Adoption and Samurai Mobility in Tokugawa Japan Ray A. Moore http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=6975844</ref><ref name="oslo2000.uio.no">Economic and Household Factors of First Marriage in Early Modern Japan: Evidence from Two Northeastern Villages, 1716–1870 http://www.oslo2000.uio.no/program/papers/s8/s8-tsuya-kuroso.pdf</ref> [[Koreans]],<ref>Ancestor Worship and Korean Society Written By Roger L. and Dawnhee Yim Janelli http://books.google.es/books?id=VDRAah_jogMC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=%22they+know+that+parents+without+male+issue%22&source=bl&ots=PwdPNfa3eR&sig=ElGM4haj6AhdYzJMlRiulVGsBZI&hl=es&sa=X&ei=5egzUtDOJ8Gv0QX1toDIDA&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22they%20know%20that%20parents%20without%20male%20issue%22&f=false</ref> the northern United States (more exactly the regions that today constitute the [[Midwest]] and the [[Northeast]] as defined by the [[United States Census Bureau]]),<ref name="journals.cambridge.org">The farm family economy in the American North, 1775–1875: an exploration of sibling differences John W. Adams and Alice Bee Kasakoff http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1829176</ref> [[Arabs]] who marry endogamously,<ref name="persee">Les modes de composition de l'alliance. Le "mariage arabe" Laurent S. Barry http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/hom_0439-4216_1998_num_38_147_370504</ref> the [[Gabra people|Gabra]],<ref>Biased parental investment and reproductive success in Gabbra pastoralists http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/405205/</ref><ref>Biased parental investment and reproductive success in Gabbra pastoralists http://www.researchgate.net/publication/227273219_Biased_parental_investment_and_reproductive_success_in_Gabbra_pastoralists/file/32bfe50fd858c8b2e8.pdf</ref><ref>BIRTH INTERVAL AND THE SEX OF CHILDREN IN A TRADITIONAL AFRICAN POPULATION: AN EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSIS RUTH MACE and REBECCA SEAR Department of Anthropology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/687/1/BirthInterval_JBS29(4).pdf</ref> the [[Rendille people|Rendille]],<ref>On Pastoralist Egalitarianism: Consequences of Primogeniture among the Rendille. http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.1086/300130?uid=3737952&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21102129662607</ref> [[Kipsigis people|Kipsigis]],<ref>Brothers and sisters: How sibling interactions affect optimal parental allocations. Mulder, Monique Borgerhoff http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1998-04787-002</ref> the [[Aymara people|Aymara]]<ref name="ucb.edu.bo">THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE POLITICS OF SACRIFICE: AN AYMARA COSMOLOGY IN ACTION http://www.ucb.edu.bo/BibliotecaAymara/docsonline/pdf/925009654.pdf</ref> the [[Orkney Islands]],<ref>Inheritance, Demographic Structure, and Marriage: a Cross-Cultural Perspective E.R. Brennan1, A.V. James2 and W.T. Morrill http://jfh.sagepub.com/content/7/3/289.short</ref> Scotland,<ref>Death knell and wedding bells’; the relationship between parental death and the timing of marriage in nineteenth century Scotland, an urban-rural comparison.</ref><ref>A history of the Scottish Highlands, Highland clans and Highland regiments Volume 2 http://archive.org/stream/scottishhighland02keltuoft/scottishhighland02keltuoft_djvu.txt</ref> and medieval and early-modern Portuguese elites.<ref name="academia.edu">Parental Investment, Social Subordination, and Population Processes among the 15th and 16th century Portuguese nobility Author: James L. Boone 1988 http://www.academia.edu/1054600/James_L._Boone_Parental_Investment_Social_Subordination_and_Population_Processes_Among_the_15th_and_16th_Century_Portuguese_Nobility_Human_Reproductive_Behavior_A_Darwinian_Perspective_L._Betzig_P._Turke_and_M._Borgerhoff-Mulder_eds._Cambridge_University_Press_1988</ref><ref name="repository.unm.edu">Parental Investment and Elite Family Structure in Preindustrial States: A Case Study of Late Medieval-Early Modern Portuguese Genealogies Author(s): James L. Boone III http://repository.unm.edu/bitstream/handle/1928/13058/Boone,%20James%20L.%20Parental%20Investment%20and%20Elite%20Family%20Structure%20in%20Preindustrial%20States.pdf?sequence=3</ref> In all these studies, with the exception of most from Germany, one from the Netherlands and the one from [[Lower Austria]], the more older brothers a man had, the lower his access to marriage and reproduction. ▼▲success of subsequent offspring in
▲pre-industrial Finns http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/274/1628/2981.full.pdf+html< /ref ><ref>The name="sons"Dynamics of the Finnish Migration to America and the Development of Emigration Databases http:/ /www.migrationinstitute.fi/articles/067_Heikkila-Uschanov.pdf</ref><ref name="Kaukianen" >Kaukiainen, Yrjö. 1987. "Population growth and land availability in southeast Finland 1750-1840"</ ref> [[Balt]] peasants,<ref>Opening Gates to the West: Lithuanian and Jewish Migrations from the Lithuanian Provinces, 1867–1914 Tomas Balkelis University College Dublin http://ces.lt/en/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/EtSt_Balkelis_2010.pdf</ref> [[Alsace]],<ref>Family Composition, Birth Order and Marriage Patterns: Evidence from Rural Alsace, 1750–1885 http://www.cairn.info/revue-annales-de-demographie-historique-2008-1-page-57.htm</ref> French elites,<ref>http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~mariterel/Female%20Monasticism%20and%20Family%20Strategy.pdf</ref> French peasants<ref>Pierre Maranda University of British Columbia (1974) French Kinship Structure and History Chapters Three, Four, Five and Six http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.135.1962&rep=rep1&type=pdf</ref> Ireland,<ref>Marital status and birth order in a sample of Dublin males http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/bitstream/handle/10197/1533/walshb_article_pub_051.pdf?sequence=3</ref> [[Wallonia]],<ref>ALTER, George, ORIS,Michel (1999), “Access to Marriage in the East Ardennes during the 19th Century”</ref><ref>BRAS, Hilde, NEVEN, Muriel (2007), «Mariage et décohabitation dans deux sociétés rurales (XIXe – XXe siècles). Frères et soeurs : rivaux ou solidaires ? » 181-218, in Les fratries : Une démographie sociale de la germanité, Michel Oris, Guy Brunet, Éric Widmer et Alain Bideau (éd.), Bern, Peter Lang.</ref> the Karo [[Batak]],<ref name="faculty.washington.edu">Resource Competition and Reproduction in Karo Batak Villages Geoff Kushnick http://faculty.washington.edu/kushnick/competition.pdf</ref> [[Ethiopian]] peasants,<ref>Land inheritance establishes sibling competition for marriage and reproduction in rural Ethiopia Mhairi A. Gibsona, and Eshetu Gurmub http://www.pnas.org/content/108/6/2200.full.pdf+html</ref><ref>STUDY ON WOMEN’S PROPERTY RIGHTS IN AFAR AND OROMIYA REGIONS, ETHIOPIA Fiona Flintan, Solomon Demlie, Mohammed Awol, Zahra Humed, Yemane Belete and Honey Lemma 2008 http://edu.care.org/Documents/Women%20property%20rights%20in%20Oromiya%20and%20AFar.pdf</ref><ref>POLYGYNY, REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS AND CHILD HEALTH IN RURAL ETHIOPIA: WHY MARRY A MARRIED MAN? MHAIRI A. GIBSONa1 and RUTH MACEa2 a1 Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Bristol, UK a2 Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, UK http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=728744</ref> the [[Jie people|Jie]] and the [[Turkana people|Turkana]],<ref>Children of the Dancing Ground, Children of the House: Costs and Benefits of Marriage Rules (South Turkana, Kenya) Rada Dyson-Hudson, Dominique Meekers and Neville Dyson-Hudson http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3631675?uid=3737952&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21102033393283</ref><ref>http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/circulation/ereserves/pdfs/courses/FALL%202007/ANTH%201150,%20MCCABE/ON%20COURSE%20NOW/CATTLE%20KEEPERS.pdf</ref><ref>Man in Adaptation: The Cultural Present edited by Yehudi A. Cohen http://books.google.es/books?id=13PoxT8kufEC&pg=PA356&lpg=PA356&dq=%22The+metamorphosis+of+the+nuclear+family-inheritance%22&source=bl&ots=cO1qLAEzlj&sig=OC3up_J4VXDIkg9ux5jmpD1t_vw&hl=es&sa=X&ei=xmcKUuOeGern7AbK_oCoAw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20metamorphosis%20of%20the%20nuclear%20family-inheritance%22&f=false</ref> the [[Datoga]],<ref>Women's strategies in polygynous marriage: Kipsigis, Datoga, and other East African cases. http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02692266.pdf</ref> [[Dominican people|Dominicans]],<ref>Local Resource Enhancement and Sex-biased Breastfeeding in a Caribbean Community robert j. quinlan, marsha b. quinlan, and mark v. flinn http://www.libarts.wsu.edu/anthro/pdf/LRE%20&%20sex%20biased%20breastfeeding.pdf</ref> the [[Polynesians]],<ref>Gender and sexuality in hierarchical societies: the case of Polynesia and some comparative implications Sherry B. Ortner http://genpent.b.uib.no/files/2013/03/article-Ortner-Gender-and-Sesuality-in-heirachical-societies.pdf</ref> Germany,<ref>Reproductive behavior of landless agricultural workers, small farmers, and the economic elite in the historical Krummhörn region [East Frisia, Germany, 1720-1870] http://www.demogr.mpg.de/papers/working/wp-2013-011.pdf</ref><ref name="persee.fr">Famille et tenure paysanne : aux origines de la guerre des Paysans en Allemagne David Sabean lien Annales. Économies, Sociétés, Civilisations lien Year 1972 lien Volume 27 lien Issue 4-5 lien pp. 903-922 http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/ahess_0395-2649_1972_num_27_4_422572</ref><ref>Verhaltensökologie menschlichen Abwanderungsverhaltens – am Beispiel der historischen Bevölkerung der Krummhörn (Ostfriesland, 18. und 19. Jahrhundert) http://bibd.uni-giessen.de/gdoc/2001/uni/d010060.pdf</ref><ref>Bäuerliches Heiratsverhalten und Stellenübertragung in den holsteinischen Elbmarschen (1650–1950) Klaus-J. Lorenzen-Schmidt∗ http://hsr-trans.zhsf.uni-koeln.de/hsrretro/docs/artikel/hsr/hsr2003_579.pdf</ref><ref>Eckart Voland lnstitut fur Anthropologie der Universitat Ghöttingen, Birgerstrasse 50, D-MOO G~ttingen, West German), Received 4 April 1983 and accepted 8 November 1983 Keywords: parental investment, infar,: mortality, sex-ratio manipulation, soeiobiology. Human Sex.Ratio Manipulation: Historical Data from a German Parish http://www.researchgate.net/publication/229105975_Human_sex-ratio_manipulation_Historical_data_from_a_german_parish/file/d912f50f90273c7a06.pdf</ref><ref>Lebensläufe, Familien, Höfe: die Bauern und Heuerleute des Osnabrückischen … edited by Jürgen Schlumbohm http://books.google.es/books?id=NYymbfiMUcAC&pg=PA379&lpg=PA379&dq=%22Belm%22+%22norm+und+praxis%22&source=bl&ots=eeK8hm3kRp&sig=BZuFP_y4ugG5dOcKyU9DDJZ0bZU&hl=es&sa=X&ei=BDdsUqzOLY6N0wXzlICACg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Belm%22%20%22norm%20und%20praxis%22&f=false</ref><ref>Rural Society and Social Networks in Nineteenth-Century Westphalia: The Role of Godparenting in Social Mobility Christine Fertig http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/jih/v039/39.4.fertig.html</ref><ref>William W. Hagen. Ordinary Prussians: Brandenburg Junkers and Villagers, 1500–1840. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 http://www.cambridge.org/us/knowledge/isbn/item1169900/?site_locale=en_US</ref><ref>Die gesetzlich geschlossenen hofgüter des badischen Schwarzwalds http://www.archive.org/stream/diegesetzlichge00kochgoog/diegesetzlichge00kochgoog_djvu.txt</ref><ref>Mecklenburg – Ein niederdeutsches Landes- und Volksbild Autor: Fromm, L. (?), Erscheinungsjahr: 1860 http://www.lexikus.de/bibliothek/Mecklenburg-Ein-niederdeutsches-Landes-und-Volksbild</ref><ref>The Peasants of Ottobeuren, 1487–1726 Govind Paul Sreenivasan http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9780511496943</ref><ref>Migration decisions in Mid-Nineteenth century Germany S Wegge 1988 http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=4123092</ref> Austria,<ref>Heirat als Privileg: Obrigkeitliche Heiratsbeschrankungen in Tirol und Vorarlberg 1820 bis 1920 http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_social_history/summary/v033/33.1sperber.html</ref><ref>Family History Revisited: Comparative Perspectives edited by Richard Wall,Tamara K. Hareven,Joseph Ehmer http://books.google.es/books?id=8awruI9XyXsC&pg=PA283&lpg=PA283&dq=%22Marriage+patterns+in+central+europe%22&source=bl&ots=oKXC0SIuW7&sig=N5VbCyUOQ6Atg5THa9PdQsKHJUo&hl=es&sa=X&ei=CV2wUfDbHaON7Qb14oDwCw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Marriage%20patterns%20in%20central%20europe%22&f=false</ref><ref>Dividends of Kinship: Meanings and Uses of Social Relatedness edited by Peter P. Schweitzer http://books.google.es/books?id=5ma3Jpyhw4AC&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=%22Lower+AUstria%22+%22ultimogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=Zr9ZS1NaxU&sig=0k4ipO0QPVpuLcE1ak-qvIWuGWE&hl=es&sa=X&ei=g0egUreyCeXR7AbR34GQAg&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Lower%20AUstria%22%20%22ultimogeniture%22&f=false</ref> English elites,<ref>Quinlan, Daniel C. - Shackleford, Jean A. (1994) Economy and English Families, 1500–1850, "Journal of Interdisciplinary History", 24, n. 3, pp. 431-63.</ref> [[Ancient Rome]],<ref>Roman Monogamy Laura Betzig Evolution & Human Behavior Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/29876/0000226.pdf&embedded=true?sequence=1</ref> Italian peasants,<ref>Between Constraints and Coercion. Marriage and Social Reproduction in northern and central Italy, 18th-19th centuries http://www.unive.it/media/allegato/DIP/Economia/Working_papers/Working_papers_2012/WP_DSE_derosas_breschi_fornasin_manfredini_munno_02_12.pdf</ref><ref>Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento: Essays in Honour of … Edited By John A. Davis,Paul Ginsborg http://books.google.es/books?id=5GgRamdssmkC&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=%22In+a+number+of+important+essays+John+Hajnal%22&source=bl&ots=Xoq4uyZVD1&sig=L7OmvLOBoQ_bcc3fyASiGKIZQVE&hl=es&sa=X&ei=Zw6LUd_RE4rfPf_4gNgJ&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22In%20a%20number%20of%20important%20essays%20John%20Hajnal%22&f=false</ref> Italian elites,<ref>Ecclesiastical careers and the destiny of cadets Renata Ago http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract;jsessionid=503CD049AA763C8F3DC91D05223DC791.journals?fromPage=online&aid=1829128</ref> [[Turkish people|Turkish]] nomads,<ref>Decentralized Leadership and Network Cohesion Decentralized Leadership and the Aydınlı Chapter 10 Case Analysis 18: Age Ranking and the Endoconical Clan Hypothesis 10.1: First and second sons are more important in marital relinking within the clan than are younger sons. http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/turks/Ch.-9.pdf</ref> [[Tibet]],<ref name="polyandry" /> <refWhy name="facultyPolyandry Fails: Sources of Instability in Polyandrous Marriages Nancy E. washington" Levine; Joan B. Silk http:/ /www.case.edu/affil/tibet/tibetanSociety/documents/02.pdf</ref> India,<ref>Where there is a will: Fertility behavior and sex bias in large families Tarun Jain Indian School of Business http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1367907</ref> [[Catalonia]],<ref>Eldest and younger siblings in a stem-family system: the case of rural Catalonia Andrés Barrera-González http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1829164</ref><ref>Choices and constraints: marriage and inheritance in eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century Catalonia JULIE MARFANY http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=435369&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0268416006005789</ref> [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]],<ref name="ub">{{cite web|title=Being well or survive? Heirs in northwestern Spain, 18th-19th centuries|author=Ofelia Rey Castelao|publisher=Universidad de Santiago de Compostela|url=http://www.ub.edu/tig/GWBNet/MinhoPapers/Ofelia%20Rey%20English.pdf}}</ref> the Netherlands,<ref>Sibship size and status attainment across contexts: Evidence from the Netherlands, 1840–1925 Hilde Bras Jan Kok Kees Mandemakers http://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol23/4/23-4.pdf</ref><ref>Sibling Position and Marriage Timing in the Netherlands, 1840–1922: A Comparison across Social Classes, Local Contexts, and Time http://intl-jfh.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/10/01/0363199013506986.abstract</ref><ref>Permanent Celibacy and Late Marriage in the Netherlands, 1890–1960 J. Kok , T. Engelen http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/pop_1634-2941_2003_num_58_1_18432</ref> Japan,<ref name="ReferenceB">Landholdings and the family life cycle in traditional Japan MASAO TAKAGI http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=35803</ref><ref name="wako.ac.jp">The Discovery of “Childhood” in Tokugawa Japan OHTA Motoko 太田素子 http://www.wako.ac.jp/human/kiyo/file/2011-0625-1138.pdf</ref><ref name="fl.reitaku-u.ac.jp">LEAVING HOME IN A STEM FAMILY SYSTEM: Departures of Heirs and Non-Heirs in Pre-lndustrial Japan SATOMI KUROSU http://www.fl.reitaku-u.ac.jp/~skurosu/MeMyself/Papers/Kurosu1996.pdf</ref><ref name="shinku.nichibun.ac.jp">Leaving Home in a Stem Family System: Patterns of Children's Migration in the Late-Nineteenth Century South Sama Satomi Kurosu http://shinku.nichibun.ac.jp/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ0701.pdf</ref><ref>Short tailors and sickly Buddhist priests: birth order and household effects on class and health in Japan, 1893–1943 Gail Honda http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1830284</ref><ref>Adoption and Samurai Mobility in Tokugawa Japan Ray A. Moore http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=6975844</ref><ref name="oslo2000.uio.no">Economic and Household Factors of First Marriage in Early Modern Japan: Evidence from Two Northeastern Villages, 1716–1870 http://www.oslo2000.uio.no/program/papers/s8/s8-tsuya-kuroso.pdf</ref> [[Koreans]],<ref>Ancestor Worship and Korean Society Written By Roger L. and Dawnhee Yim Janelli http://books.google.es/books?id=VDRAah_jogMC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=%22they+know+that+parents+without+male+issue%22&source=bl&ots=PwdPNfa3eR&sig=ElGM4haj6AhdYzJMlRiulVGsBZI&hl=es&sa=X&ei=5egzUtDOJ8Gv0QX1toDIDA&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22they%20know%20that%20parents%20without%20male%20issue%22&f=false</ref> the northern United States (more exactly the regions that today constitute the [[Midwest]] and the [[Northeast]] as defined by the [[United States Census Bureau]]),<ref name="journals.cambridge.org">The farm family economy in the American North, 1775–1875: an exploration of sibling differences John W. Adams and Alice Bee Kasakoff http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1829176</ref> [[Arabs]] who marry endogamously,<ref name="persee">Les modes de composition de l'alliance. Le "mariage arabe" Laurent S. Barry http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/hom_0439-4216_1998_num_38_147_370504</ref> the [[Gabra people|Gabra]],<ref>Biased parental investment and reproductive success in Gabbra pastoralists http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/405205/</ref><ref>Biased parental investment and reproductive success in Gabbra pastoralists http://www.researchgate.net/publication/227273219_Biased_parental_investment_and_reproductive_success_in_Gabbra_pastoralists/file/32bfe50fd858c8b2e8.pdf</ref><ref>BIRTH INTERVAL AND THE SEX OF CHILDREN IN A TRADITIONAL AFRICAN POPULATION: AN EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSIS RUTH MACE and REBECCA SEAR Department of Anthropology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/687/1/BirthInterval_JBS29(4).pdf</ref> the [[Rendille people|Rendille]],<ref>On Pastoralist Egalitarianism: Consequences of Primogeniture among the Rendille. http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.1086/300130?uid=3737952&uid=2&uid=4&sid=21102129662607</ref> [[Kipsigis people|Kipsigis]],<ref>Brothers and sisters: How sibling interactions affect optimal parental allocations. Mulder, Monique Borgerhoff http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1998-04787-002</ref> the [[Aymara people|Aymara]]<ref name="ucb.edu.bo">THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE POLITICS OF SACRIFICE: AN AYMARA COSMOLOGY IN ACTION http://www.ucb.edu.bo/BibliotecaAymara/docsonline/pdf/925009654.pdf</ref> the [[Orkney Islands]],<ref>Inheritance, Demographic Structure, and Marriage: a Cross-Cultural Perspective E.R. Brennan1, A.V. James2 and W.T. Morrill http://jfh.sagepub.com/content/7/3/289.short</ref> Scotland,<ref>Death knell and wedding bells’; the relationship between parental death and the timing of marriage in nineteenth century Scotland, an urban-rural comparison.</ref><ref>A history of the Scottish Highlands, Highland clans and Highland regiments Volume 2 http://archive.org/stream/scottishhighland02keltuoft/scottishhighland02keltuoft_djvu.txt</ref> and medieval and early-modern Portuguese elites.<ref name="academia.edu">Parental Investment, Social Subordination, and Population Processes among the 15th and 16th century Portuguese nobility Author: James L. Boone 1988 http://www.academia.edu/1054600/James_L._Boone_Parental_Investment_Social_Subordination_and_Population_Processes_Among_the_15th_and_16th_Century_Portuguese_Nobility_Human_Reproductive_Behavior_A_Darwinian_Perspective_L._Betzig_P._Turke_and_M._Borgerhoff-Mulder_eds._Cambridge_University_Press_1988</ref><ref name="repository.unm.edu">Parental Investment and Elite Family Structure in Preindustrial States: A Case Study of Late Medieval-Early Modern Portuguese Genealogies Author(s): James L. Boone III http://repository.unm.edu/bitstream/handle/1928/13058/Boone,%20James%20L.%20Parental%20Investment%20and%20Elite%20Family%20Structure%20in%20Preindustrial%20States.pdf?sequence=3</ref> In all these studies, with the exception of most from Germany, one from the Netherlands and the one from [[Lower Austria]], the more older brothers a man had, the lower his access to marriage and reproduction.
The custom by which one, and only one, member of a family is permitted to marry is called henogamy. The classic example is that of the patrilineal Nambūdiri Brahmans of Malabār in Tamil Nadu, India; among them, only eldest sons were permitted to marry Nambūdiri women and have legitimate children. The custom is concerned with the need to keep property intact and to limit the number of legitimate heirs, but it is also buttressed by religious teachings and belief in reincarnation.<ref>henogamy http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/261306/henogamy</ref> Among the [[Aymara people|Aymara]], a symbolical-religious meaning was attached to the higher reproductive possibilities given by custom to the eldest son, too<ref name="ucb.edu.bo"/> (see [[Systems of social stratification]]).
In Lesotho<ref>BASELINE RESEARCH ON CULTURAL PRACTICES RELATED TO LAND TENURE SECURITY AND INHERITANCE RIGHTS FOR LESOTHO WIDOWS AND ORPHANS AND VULNERABLE CHILDREN FUNDED BY: CIDA VOLUNTARY SECTOR FUND PREPARED BY: HABITAT FOR HUMANITY LESOTHO AND FEDERATION OF WOMEN LAWYERS (FIDA-LESOTHO) JUNE 2008</ref> and southern Ethiopia,<ref>http://www.justnsustshelter.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=54</ref> surveys reveal that most people today still follow the custom of male primogeniture. On the other hand, in Zambia (where it applies to 80 per cent of all the land in the country),<ref>Protecting Human Security in Africa written by Ademola Abass http://books.google.es/books?id=kOjpTQ5T7-YC&pg=PT250&lpg=PT250&dq=%22zambia%22+%22customary+law%22+%22primogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=RpLJpUTM_l&sig=b7oXiIfjsG7xXxVp5WmhwNn0JME&hl=es&sa=X&ei=oaeQUbHZHsf17AbjgoHwCA&ved=0CIUBEOgBMAc</ref> Namibia<ref>N A M I B I A – UN-Habitat http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/getElectronicVersion.asp?nr=2133&alt=1</ref><ref>Land Tenure, Housing Rights and Gender in Namibia Written By United Nations Human Settlements Programme http://books.google.es/books?id=-RUdwR_Y16oC&pg=PT30&lpg=PT30&dq=%22Namibia%22+%22male+primogeniture%22&source=bl&ots=cgH7kwhalT&sig=_XOpAL2kS0aOy4-ofiM06MujP7w&hl=es&sa=X&ei=OI7GUbfkA5OKhQepjYDoAQ&ved=0CEIQ6AEwAw</ref> and Cameroon,<ref>THE STRUCTURE OF SUCCESSION LAW IN CAMEROON: FINDING A BALANCE BETWEEN THE NEEDS AND INTERESTS OF DIFFERENT FAMILY MEMBERS. By JOSEPH NZALIE EBI http://etheses.bham.ac.uk/300/1/NzalieEbi09PhD_A1a.pdf</ref> the customary law of patrilineal primogeniture prevalent in these countries is also beginning to be challenged in court. In eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, the predominant custom of [[male primogeniture]] is also beginning to be considered unfair by some women and younger sons.<ref>Hope for the Future Again Tracing the effects of sexual violence and conflict on families and communities in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo Jocelyn Kelly, Michael VanRooyen, Justin Kabanga, Beth Maclin and Colleen Mullen April 2011 http://hhi.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/publications/publications%20-%20women%20-%20hope.pdf</ref> However, in [[South Sudan]],<ref>Sudan: Customary Justice System in the Nation http://allafrica.com/stories/201204301478.html</ref> Uganda,<ref>Statutory Law, Patriarchy and Inheritance – African Journals Online http://www.ajol.info/index.php/asr/article/download/57752/46119</ref> Tanzania (where it applies to 80 per cent of patrilineal communities),<ref>Child-Widows Silenced and Unheard: Human Rights Sufferers in Tanzania Written By Monica Elias Magoke-Mhoja http://books.google.es/books?id=2CJNkxGznHgC&pg=PA107&lpg=PA107&dq=%22Tanzania%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=sMFZdOstJ4&sig=ZomA892F5oiSDIk1K5X3xIvD8og&hl=es&sa=X&ei=V-R2UsTxJM-S7AbugoHoDQ&ved=0CGEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22Tanzania%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref> Burundi,<ref>http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/700157.pdf</ref> Equatorial Guinea,<ref>Equatorial Guinea Human Rights Report http://www.ncbuy.com/reference/country/humanrights.html?code=ek&sec=5</ref> Zimbabwe and Gambia,<ref>Rural Gambian Households A Baseline Study of Credit Union Members in Four Regions of the Gambia Irish League of Credit Unions Foundation & National Association of Cooperative Credit Unions of the Gambia http://www.ilcufoundation.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Gambia-Baseline-Study-ILCUF-June-2012.pdf</ref> the custom of patrilineal primogeniture predominant in all these nations hasn't yet caused much opposition. In Ghana, the diverse inheritance customs across ethnic groups (such as male primogeniture among the Ewe and the Krobos, or matrilineal inheritance among the Akan) contribute to the phenomenon of children living in the streets.<ref>'STREETISM' OR LIVING IN THE STREET, AN EMERGING PHENOMENON AS A WAY OF LIFE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, A CASE STUDY OF CHILDREN LIVING ON THE STREETS OF GHANA. by Christine A. N. Tettegah University of Nottingham http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/3703/1/575417.pdf</ref> In Sierra Leone, the inheritance customs prevalent in the country (either the eldest son or the eldest brother inherits the property) create insecurities for widows.<ref>Sierra Leone: "we'll Kill You If You Cry" : Sexual Violence in the Sierra … Written By Human Rights Watch (Organization) http://books.google.es/books?id=CQYeQNqJEncC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=%22Sierra+Leone%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=tWVpneWInp&sig=qJI1kZpVkeJg9mw0ALC8dcUPmq8&hl=es&sa=X&ei=WUSMUvW0BtGA7Qbc-IDQDg&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Sierra%20Leone%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref> In South Korea, favouring the eldest son has been predominant almost up to this day, despite laws of equal inheritance for all children, and even in 2005, in more than half (52.6 per cent) cases of inheritance the eldest son inherited most or all of his parent's property; in more than 30 per cent of cases the eldest son inherited all of his parent's property.<ref name="casgroup.fiu.edu" /><ref name="paa2009.princeton.edu" /><ref>Intergenerational Transfers and Old- Age Security in Korea Hisam Kim http://www.nber.org/chapters/c8163.pdf</ref> (in North Korea, which obviously had the same family pattern as the South in the past, when they formed a single country, there has been no inheritance of the family property since its proclamation as an independent communist country in 1948).
Social transformations can also modify inheritance customs to a great extent. For example, the [[Samburu people|Samburu]] are pastoralists who have traditionally practiced an attenuated form of patrilineal [[primogeniture]], with the eldest son receiving the largest share of the family herd and each succeeding son receiving a considerably smaller share than any of his seniors.<ref>The Samburu: A Study in Geocentracy Written By Paul Spencer http://books.google.es/books?id=ChWQyMe2S_gC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=%22Samburu%22+%22this+chapter+is+concerned+with+the+complex%22&source=bl&ots=iINdyBDSp1&sig=Hvn77quGdkDQQ4-4r1F1xfQp3cw&hl=es&sa=X&ei=FNCOUYa1FMqV7AaMooFY&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Samburu%22%20%22this%20chapter%20is%20concerned%20with%20the%20complex%22&f=false</ref> Now that many of them have become agriculturalists, some argue that land inheritance should follow patrilineal [[primogeniture]], while others argue for equal division of the land.<ref>Understanding Institutional Emergence: Land Inheritance among Samburu pastoralists in Kenya http://www.isnie.org/ISNIE06/Papers06/03.2/lesorogol.pdf</ref> The [[Bhil]], who were hunter-gatherers in the past, adopted a system of attenuated patrilineal [[primogeniture]] identical to that of pastoral [[Samburu people|Samburu]] when they became agriculturalists,<ref>Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH ASIA http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/enc-sa.pdf</ref> and the same custom also prevails among some other peoples, like the [[Elgeyo]],<ref>SKETCH OF ELGEYO LAW AND CUSTOM http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/content/XX/LXXIX/195.extract</ref> the Maasai<ref>The Maasai of Matapato: A Study of Rituals of Rebellion Written By Paul Spencer http://books.google.es/books?id=dyuoRxHwdmQC&pg=PA205&lpg=PA205&dq=%22The+principle+of+seniority+within+each+hut+means%22&source=bl&ots=4xdmhjDZHr&sig=DCQ318ezzHP_JBY6t_6crJQnC-A&hl=es&sa=X&ei=QKY7UvO-Iqr40gXRk4HwDA&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20principle%20of%20seniority%20within%20each%20hut%20means%22&f=false</ref> or the [[Nupe people|Nupe]]. The [[Amhara people|Amhara]], most of whom divide their property between all sons and do not leave most or all of the land to only one of them, nevertheless practice male primogeniture in some regions,<ref>The Evil Eye Belief Among the Amhara of Ethiopia Ronald A Reminick Cleveland State University http://www.refugeelegalaidinformation.com/sites/srlan/files/fileuploads/Reminick-TheEvilEyeBeliefAmongAmharaEthiopia_again.pdf</ref> and favoring the eldest son is also common among the Dinka.<ref name="books.google_a" /><refCustomary Law in the Modern World: The Crossfire of Sudan's War of Identities Written By Francis name="Deng" http://books.google.es/books?id=AcRfaVfD3i8C&pg=PA122&lpg=PA122&dq=%22Dinka%22+%22eldest+son%22+%22inherits%22&source=bl&ots=77JFYXlbVa&sig=jBoRZMsEVa9nCAFAPIPTryrC_1w&hl=es&sa=X&ei=xsYcUpKJOIiv7Aa7r4HQBg&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=%22Dinka%22%20%22eldest%20son%22%20%22inherits%22&f=false</ref> Among the [[Shona people|Shona]], "the eldest son inherits first and obtains the largest and/or most productive piece of land".<ref>The Impact of HIV/AIDS on the Shona Livelihood System of Southeast Zimbabwe Written By John Mazzeo http://books.google.es/books?id=QErfUz6AsloC&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=%22the+eldest+son+inherits+first+and+obtains+the+largest%22&source=bl&ots=sPAd9IaVTX&sig=PbpBVTczUC7h9FEuuXSkN4f9A8w&hl=es&sa=X&ei=l5SYUfuLJuPA7AbM7oD4AQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22the%20eldest%20son%20inherits%20first%20and%20obtains%20the%20largest%22&f=false</ref> The oldest accounts of the [[Shona people|Shona]] already speak about patrilineal primogeniture as their inheritance custom. "When a man dies, his eldest son by any wife is the principal heir".<ref>MASHONALAND NATIVES WS TABERER – 1905 afraf.oxfordjournals.org/content/4/XV/311.full.pdf</ref> "under Shona law a deceased’s eldest son is his heir".<ref>African Law and Custom in Rhodesia, Goldin and Gelfand, p 284</ref> "At the kurovagova of a married man there is usually a question of more than one succession. In the first place the deceased's eldest son will be invested with this father's own name whereby he becomes the head of his father's house. But the widow will be inherited by the deceased's brother".<ref>Shona Customary Law: With Reference to Kinship, Marriage, the Family and the … Written By J. F. Holleman http://books.google.es/books?id=ZB28AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236&lpg=PA236&dq=%22At+the+kurovaguva%22&source=bl&ots=kGWqM7Re85&sig=kY7_fi_oHw6aEliSBkGWUHwiFvg&hl=es&sa=X&ei=9yldUoP5Hubw0gXC4oHACQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22At%20the%20kurovaguva%22&f=false</ref> However, the widow could choose not to be inherited by any man.<ref>Gender Issues in Some Traditional Shona Marriage Customs An Africana womanist perspective by Enna Sukutai Gudhlanga Zimbabwe Open University, Department of Languages & Media Studies Godwin Makaudze Great Zimbabwe University, Department of Africa Languages and Culture http://www.quietmountainessays.org/Gudhlanga_Makaudze.html</ref>
== Systems of social stratification ==
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