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'''Programmed learning''' (or 'programmed instruction') is a research-based system which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a variety of [[Applied psychology|applied psychologists]] and educators.<ref name=Lums>Lumsdaine A.A. 1963. Instruments and media of instruction. In N.L. Gage (ed) ''Handbook of research on teaching''. Chicago: AERA and Rand McNally, 583–682.</ref>
The [[learning material]] is in a kind of [[textbook]] or [[teaching machine]] or [[computer]]. The [[media (communication)|medium]] presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. The text is in small steps or larger chunks. After each step, learners are given a question to test their comprehension. Then immediately the correct answer is shown. This means the learner at all stages makes responses, and is given immediate [[knowledge of results]].<ref>Margulies S. & Eigen L.D. 1961. ''Applied programmed instruction''. New York: Wiley.</ref><ref name=Sue/>
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Both methods were originally presented in machines, and both were later presented in book form. Both systems were to an extent student centered. They were ways of teaching individual learners who worked at their own pace. Both systems (in different ways) used knowledge of results to promote learning.<ref name=Lums/><sup>p619</sup><ref>Annett J. 1964. The role of knowledge of results in learning: a survey. In ''Educational Technology'', De Cecco (ed), Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 279{{ndash}}285.</ref> In both systems the content was pre-tested to identify problems and iron them out. Both systems emphasised clear learning objectives. Progress in learning was measured by pre- and post-tests of equivalent difficulty. Many practical tests showed the effectiveness of these methods.<ref>Glaser R. (ed) 1965. ''Teaching machines and programed learning II: data and directions''. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.</ref>
Many of these ideas were picked up and used in other educational fields, such as [[open learning]] (see the [[Open University]]) and [[computer-assisted learning]].<ref name="Pritchard-24">Pritchard, Alan 2009. ''Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom''. London: Taylor & Francis, 2nd ed. ISBN 978-0-415-46608-0</ref><ref>Rowntree D. 1990. ''Teaching through self-instruction: how to develop open learning material''. London: Kogan Page, 2nd ed. ISBN 1-85091-957-7; USA: ISBN 0-89397-356-4</ref> Also influenced was the [[Children's Television Workshop]] which did the [[R&D]] for [[Sesame Street]]. The use of developmental testing was absolutely characteristic of programmed learning. The division of the individual programs into small chunks is also a feature of programmed learning.<ref>Lesser, Gerald S. 1974. ''Children and television: lessons from Sesame Street''. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-394-71448-2</ref><ref>Fisch, Shalom M. & Bernstein, Lewis 2001. Formative research revealed: methodological and process issues in formative research". In Fisch, Shalom M. & Truglio, Rosemarie T. (eds) ''"G" is for Growing: thirty years of research on children and Sesame Street''. Mahweh, New Jersey: Erlbaum, 40. ISBN 0-8058-3395-1</ref>
==Examples==
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