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Although there were three or four other systems proposed, we discuss here the two best-known methods.
One was by [[Norman Crowder (psychologist)|Norman Crowder]], a psychologist with the [[U.S. Air Force]]. He had been asked to investigate the training of aircraft [[wikt:maintain|maintenance]] men.<ref name=Derek>Rowntree D. 1966. ''Basically branching''. London: Macdonald, p5 & examples in text.</ref> Crowder's system was to set multiple choice questions in the text, and provide feedback for each of the alternatives.<ref>Crowder N. [1954]. ''Intrinsic programming''. U.S. Industries.</ref><ref>Crowder N. 1959. Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming. In Galanter E.H. (ed) ''Automatic teaching: the state of the art''. New York: Wiley, 109{{ndash}}116.</ref><ref>Crowder Norman A. 1960. Automatic tutoring by intrinsic progamming. In Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960. ''Teaching machines and programed learning I: a source book''. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.</ref> Examples of this method show that the alternatives offered in questions were chosen to cover mistakes which students were likely to make.<ref name=Sue>Markle S.M. 1969. ''Good frames and bad: a grammar of frame writing''. 2nd ed, New York: Wiley, Chapters 1 & 4.</ref><ref name=Derek/>
Much better known was the other style of programmed learning, as proposed by the [[behaviourist]] [[B.F. Skinner]]. Skinner made some very effective criticisms of traditional teaching methods.<ref>Skinner B.F. 1965. ''The technology of teaching''. Appleton-Century-Croft. Includes reprints of his papers on programmed learning.</ref> His scheme of programmed instruction was to present the material as part of a "schedule of [[reinforcement]]" in typical behaviourist manner. The programmed text of Skinner's theory of behaviorism is the most complete example of his ideas in action.<ref>Holland J.G. & Skinner B.F. 1961. ''The analysis of behavior''. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> Skinner was a wonderful publicist for his own ideas, as can be seen from this passage:
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== Learning or training? ==
The terms "programmed learning" and "programmed training" were interchangeable, because the principles and methods were almost identical.<ref>Glaser, Robert 1964. Implications of training research for education. In Hilgard E.R. (ed) ''Theories of learning and instruction: the 63rd yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education''. NSSE, p153/181.</ref> If the target audience was industrial or military, researchers used the term programmed training, because training budgets supported the work. But in schools and colleges, the work was often described as programmed learning.
Many accounts used either or both terms according to which interest was paying for the work. Sometimes researchers used both terms as explicit alternatives.<ref>Lumsdaine A.A. 1964. Educational technology, programmed learning and instructional science. In Hilgard E.R. (ed) ''Theories of learning and instruction: the 63rd yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education''. NSSE, p382.</ref> Some surveys standardised on using just one of the terms.<ref>Hanson L.F. & Komoski P.K. School use of programmed instruction; and Shoemaker H.A. & Holt H.O. The use of programmed instruction in industry. In Glaser R. (ed) 1965. ''Teaching machines and programed learning II: data and directions''. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.</ref>
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