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Although there were three or four other systems proposed, we discuss here the two best-known methods.
One was by [[Norman Crowder (psychologist)|Norman Crowder]], a psychologist with the [[U.S. Air Force]]. He had been asked to investigate the training of aircraft [[wikt:maintain|maintenance]] men.<ref name=Derek>Rowntree D. 1966. ''Basically branching''. London: Macdonald, p5 & examples in text.</ref> Crowder's system was to set multiple choice questions in the text, and provide feedback for each of the alternatives.<ref>Crowder N. [1954]. ''Intrinsic programming''. U.S. Industries.</ref><ref>Crowder N. 1959. Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming. In Galanter E.H. (ed) ''Automatic teaching: the state of the art''. New York: Wiley, 109{{ndash}}116.</ref><ref>Crowder Norman A. 1960. Automatic tutoring by intrinsic progamming. In Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960. ''Teaching machines and programed learning I: a source book''. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.</ref> Examples of this method show that the alternatives offered in questions were chosen to cover mistakes which students were likely to make.<ref name=Sue>Markle S.M. 1969. ''Good frames and bad: a grammar of frame writing''. 2nd ed, New York: Wiley, Chapters 1 & 4.</ref><ref name=Derek/> Crowder's system, which he called "intrinsic programming", was better known as "branching programming" on account of its multiple-choice alternatives.
Much better known was the other style of programmed learning, as proposed by the [[behaviourist]] [[B.F. Skinner]]. Skinner made some very effective criticisms of traditional teaching methods.<ref>Skinner B.F. 1965. ''The technology of teaching''. Appleton-Century-Croft. Includes reprints of his papers on programmed learning.</ref> His scheme of programmed instruction was to present the material as part of a "schedule of [[reinforcement]]" in typical behaviourist manner. The programmed text of Skinner's theory of behaviorism is the most complete example of his ideas in action.<ref>Holland J.G. & Skinner B.F. 1961. ''The analysis of behavior''. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> Skinner's system was generally called "linear programming" because its activities were placed in otherwise continuous text. Skinner was a wonderful publicist for his own ideas, as can be seen from this passage:
:"There is a simple job to be done. The task can be stated in concrete terms. The necessary techniques are known. The equipment can easily be provided. Nothing stands in the way except cultural inertia... We are on the threshold of an exciting and revolutionary period in which the scientific study of man will be put to work in man's best interests. Education must play its part. It must accept the fact that sweeping revision of educational practice is possible and inevitable...".<ref>Skinner B.F. 1954. The science of learning and the art of teaching. ''Harvard Educational Review'' '''24''', 86.</ref>
Both methods were originally presented in machines, and both were later presented in book form. Both systems were to an extent student centered. They were ways of teaching individual learners who worked at their own pace. Both systems (in different ways) used knowledge of results to promote learning.<ref name=Lums/><sup>p619</sup><ref>Annett J. 1964. The role of knowledge of results in learning: a survey. In ''Educational Technology'', De Cecco (ed), Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 279{{ndash}}285.</ref> In both systems the content was pre-tested to identify problems and iron them out. Both systems emphasised clear learning objectives. Progress in learning was measured by pre- and post-tests of equivalent difficulty. Many practical tests showed the effectiveness of these methods.<ref>Glaser R. (ed) 1965. ''Teaching machines and programed learning II: data and directions''. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.</ref>
== Later effects ==
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