Language documentation tools and methods: Difference between revisions

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The field of [[language documentation]] in the modern context involves a complex and ever-evolving set of tools and methods, and the study and development of their use - and, especially, identification and promotion of best practices - can be considered a sub-field of [[language documentation]] proper.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/ldtoolssummit/home|title=LD Tools Summit|website=sites.google.com|access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref> Among these are hardware tools, software tools, workflows and methods, and ethical practices.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1057/9780230590168|title=Linguistic Fieldwork - Springer|last=Bowern|first=Claire|doi=10.1057/9780230590168}}</ref>

== Workflows and other methods ==

Researchers in language documentation often begin with linguistic fieldwork, by recording audiovisual files that document language use in traditional contexts. Because the types of environment in which linguistic fieldwork often takes place may be logistically challenging, not every type of recording tool is necessarily ideal, and compromises must often be struck between quality, cost and usability. It is also important to envision the remainder of one's workflow; for example, if video files are made, some amount of processing may be required to expose the audio component to processing in various ways by different software packages.

=== Principles for recording ===

Since documentation of languages is often difficult, with many languages that linguists work with being endangered (they may not be spoken in the near future), it is recommended to record at the highest quality possible given the limitations of a recorder. For video, this means recording at HD resolution (1080p or 720p) or higher when possible, while for audio this means recording minimally in uncompressed WAV, 44.1khz, 16-bit resolution. Arguably, however, good recording techniques (isolation, microphone selection and usage, using a tripod to minimize blur) is more important than resolution. A microphone that gives a clear recording of a speaker telling a folktale (high signal/noise ratio) in MP3 format is better than an extremely noisy recording in WAV format where all that can be heard are cars going by. To ensure that good recordings can be obtained, linguists should practice with their recording devices as much as possible and compare the results to observe which techniques yield the best results.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51818554|title=Phonetic data analysis : an introduction to fieldwork and instrumental techniques|last=Peter.|first=Ladefoged,|date=2003|publisher=Blackwell Pub|isbn=0631232699|___location=Malden, MA|oclc=51818554}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chelliah|first=Shobhana L.|last2=de Reuse|first2=Willem J.|date=2011|title=Handbook of Descriptive Linguistic Fieldwork|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-90-481-9026-3|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9026-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1029352513|title=Understanding linguistic fieldwork.|last=Meakins, Felicity; Green, Jennifer; Turpin, Myfany|first=|publisher=|others=|year=2018|isbn=9781351330114|___location=London|pages=|oclc=1029352513}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2011-11-24|editor-last=Thieberger|editor-first=Nicholas|title=The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Fieldwork|url=http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571888.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199571888|language=en-US|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571888.001.0001}}</ref>

== Hardware ==

=== Video+audio recorders ===

Recorders that record video typically also record audio as well. However, the audio does not always meet the criteria of minimal needs and recommended best practices for language documentation (uncompressed WAV format, 44.1khz, 16-bit), and is often not useful for linguistic purposes such as phonetic analysis. Many video recordersdevices record instead to a compressed audio format such as AAC or MP3, which is combined with the video stream in a wrapper of [[Digital video#Storage formats|various kinds]]. Exceptions to this general rule are the following recorders:

The [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/field-video-recording/video-recording Zoom] series, particularly the [https://www.zoom-na.com/products/field-video-recording/video-recording/zoom-q8/specs Q8], [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/field-video-recording/video-recording/q4n-handy-video-recorder#specs Q4n], and [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/field-video-recording/video-recording/q2n-handy-video-recorder#specs Q2n], which record to multiple audio formats, including WAV (44.1/48/96khz, 16/24-bit).

When using a video recorder that does not record audio in WAV format (such as most DSLR cameras), it is recommended to record audio separately on another recorder, following some of the recommendationsguidelines below. As with the audio recorders described below, many video recorders also accept microphone input of various kinds, which can ensure a high-quality backup audio recording that is in sync with the recorded video, which can be helpful in some cases (i.e. for transcription).

=== Audio recorders and microphones ===

Audio-only recorders can be used in scenarios where video is impractical or otherwise undesirable. In most cases it is advantageous to combine the use of an audio-only recorder with one or more external microphones, however many modern audio recorders include built-in microphones which are usable if cost or setup speed are important concerns. Digital (solid state) recorders are preferred for most language documentation scenarios. Modern digital recorders achieve a very high level of quality at a relatively low price. Some of the most popular field recorders are found in the [https://www.zoom.co.jp/ Zoom] range, including the [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/handy-recorder/h1-handy-recorder H1], [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/handy-recorder/h2n-handy-recorder H2], [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/field-recording/h4n-pro-handy-recorder H4], [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/handy-recorder/h5-handy-recorder H5] and [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/field-video-recording/field-recording/h6-handy-recorder H6]. The [https://www.zoom.co.jp/products/handy-recorder/h1-handy-recorder H1] is particularly suitable for situations in which cost and user-friendliness are major desiderata.

Several types of [[microphone]] can be effectively used in language documentation scenarios, depending on the situation (especially, including factors such as number, position and mobility of speakers) and on budget. In general, [[condenser microphones]] should be selected rather than [[dynamic microphones]]. It is an advantage in most fieldwork situations if a condenser microphone is self-powered (via a battery); however, when power is not a major factor, phantom-powered models can also be used. A stereo microphone setup is needed whenever more than one speaker is involved in a recording; this can be achieved via an array of two mono microphones, or by a dedicated stereo microphone.

Directional microphones should be used in most cases, in order to isolate a speaker's voice from other potential noise sources. However, omnidirectional microphones may be preferred in situations involving larger numbers of speakers arrayed in a relatively large space. Among directional microphones, [[Cardioid microphone|cardioid]] microphones are suitable for most applications, however in some cases a [[hypercardioid]] ("shotgun") microphone may be preferred. Good quality headset microphones are comparatively expensive, but can produce recordings of unsurpassed quality in controlled situations. [[Lavalier microphone|Lavalier]] microphones may be used in some situations, however they produce recordings which are inferior to a headset microphone for phonetic analysis, and are subject to the same concerns that headset microphones are in terms of restriction of a recording to a single speaker.

Good quality headset microphones are comparatively expensive, but can produce recordings of extremely high quality in controlled situations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Švec|first=Jan G.|last2=Granqvist|first2=Svante|date=2010-11-01|title=Guidelines for Selecting Microphones for Human Voice Production Research|url=https://ajslp.pubs.asha.org/article.aspx?articleid=1767774|journal=American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology|language=en|volume=19|issue=4|pages=356–368|doi=10.1044/1058-0360(2010/09-0091)|issn=1058-0360}}</ref> [[Lavalier microphone|Lavalier]] or "lapel" microphones may be used in some situations, however, depending on the microphone they can produce recordings which are inferior to a headset microphone for phonetic analysis, and are subject to the same concerns that headset microphones are in terms of restriction of a recording to a single speaker - while other speakers may be audible on the recording, they will be backgrounded in relation to the speaker wearing the lavalier microphone.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=B.|first=Brixen, Eddy|date=1996-05-01|title=Spectral Degradation of Speech Captured by Miniature Microphones Mounted on Persons' Heads and Chests|url=http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=7495|language=English}}</ref>

Some good quality microphones used for film-making and interviews include the [http://www.rode.com/microphones/video Røde VideoMic shotgun and the Røde lavalier series], [http://www.shure.com/americas/products/microphones/beta/beta-53-headworn-microphone Shure headworn mics] and [http://www.shure.com/americas/search?utf8=%E2%9C%93&keyword=lavalier#keyword=lavalier&category_1=Microphones Shure lavaliers]. Depending on the recorder and microphone, additional cables (XLR, stereo/mono converter or a [https://www.amazon.com/Rode-SC3-3-5mm-TRRS-Adaptor/dp/B00L6C8PNU TRRS to TRS adapter]) will be necessary.

=== Other recording tools ===