Levels of processing model: Difference between revisions

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Levels of processing have been an integral part of learning about memory. The self-reference effect describes the greater recall capacity for a particular stimulus if it is related semantically to the subject. This can be thought of as a corollary of the familiarity modifier, because stimuli specifically related to an event in a person's life will have widespread activation in that person's semantic network.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 121| issue = 3| pages = 371–394| last = Symons| first = CS|author2=Thompson BT | title = The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis | pmid = 9136641 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | year = 1997

| url = http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=chip_docs

| doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.371 | format = pdf }}</ref> For example, the recall value of a personality trait adjective is higher when subjects are asked whether the trait adjective applies to them than when asked whether trait adjective has a meaning similar to another trait.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 14| issue = 5| pages = 785–794| last = Kelley| first = WM |author2=Macrae CN |author3=Wyland CL |author4=Caglar S |author5=Inati S |author6= Heatherton TF | title = Finding the Self? An Event-Related fMRI Study | pmid = 12167262 | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience| year = 2002| doi = 10.1162/08989290260138672| citeseerx = 10.1.1.522.2494}}</ref>

===Implicit memory and levels-of-processing===

Implicit memory tests, in contrast with explicit memory tests, measure the recall value of a particular stimulus based on later performance on stimulus-related tasks. During these tasks, the subject does not explicitly recall the stimulus, but the previous stimulus still affects performance.<ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 45 | pages = 1043–1056 | last = Roediger | first = HL | title = Implicit memory: Retention without remembering | journal = American Psychologist | year = 1990 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.45.9.1043 | pmid = 2221571 | issue = 9 }}</ref> For example, in a word-completion implicit memory task, if a subject reads a list containing the word "dog", the subject provides this word more readily when asked for three-letter words beginning in "d". The levels-of-processing effect is only found for explicit memory tests. One study found that word completion tasks were unaffected by levels of semantic encodings achieved using three words with various levels of meaning in common.<ref>{{Cite journal | issn = 0002-9556 | volume = 102 | issue = 2 | pages = 151–181 | last = Schacter | first = DL |author2=McGlynn SM | title = Implicit memory: Effects of elaboration depend on unitization | journal = The American Journal of Psychology | year = 1989 | doi = 10.2307/1422950 | publisher = University of Illinois Press | jstor = 1422950 }}</ref> Another found that typical level-of-processing effects are reversed in word completion tasks; subjects recalled pictures pairs more completely if they were shown a word representing a picture rather than asked to rate a picture for pleasantness (semantic encoding).<ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 1251–1269 | last = Roediger | first = HL |author2=Stadler ML |author3=Weldon MS |author4=Riegler GL | title = Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: word fragment and word stem completion | journal = Journal of experimentalExperimental psychologyPsychology. Learning, memoryMemory, and cognitionCognition | year = 1992 | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.18.6.1251 | pmid = 1447550 }}</ref> Typical level-of-processing theory would predict that picture encodings would create deeper processing than lexical encoding.

"Memory over the short term and the long term has been thought to differ in many ways in terms of capacity, the underlying neural substrates, and the types of processes that support performance."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rose | first1 = N. S. | last2 = Craik | first2 = F. M. | year = 2012 | title = A processing approach to the working memory/long-term memory distinction: Evidence from the levels-of-processing span task | url = | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, Andand Cognition | volume = 38 | issue = 4| pages = 1019–1029 | doi = 10.1037/a0026976 | pmid = 22268911 }}</ref>

====Long-term memory====

We especially remember information if we relate it to ourselves.

Damage to the hippocampus produces an inability to form or retrieve new long-term memories, but the ability to maintain and reproduce a small subset of information over the short term is typically preserved.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = A. | last2 = Warrington | first2 = E. | year = 1970 | title = Amnesia and the distinction between long- and short-term memory | url = | journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior | volume = 9 | issue = 2| pages = 176–189 | doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80048-2 }}</ref>

==Sensory modes ==

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===Vision===

[[Visual perception|Visual input]] creates the strongest recall value of all senses, and also allows the widest spectrum of levels-of-processing modifiers. It is also one of the most widely studied. Within visual studies, pictures have been shown to have a greater recall value than words – the [[picture superiority effect]]. However, semantic associations have the reverse effect in picture memories appear to be reversed to those in other memories. When logical details are stressed, rather than physical details, an image's recall value becomes lower.<ref>{{Cite journal | issn = 0278-7393 | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = 284–98 | last = Intraub | first = H |author2=Nicklos S | title = Levels of processing and picture memory: the physical superiority effect| pmid = 3157769 | journal = Journal of experimentalExperimental psychologyPsychology. Learning, memoryMemory, and cognitionCognition | year = 1985 | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.11.2.284 }}</ref> When comparing [[orthography|orthographic]] (capitalization, letter and word shape), phonological (word sound) and semantic (word meaning) [[Encoding (memory)|encoding]] cues, the highest levels of recall were found with the meanings of the words, followed by their sounds and finally the written and shape-based cues were found to generate the least ability to stimulate recall.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Craik | first = FIM |author2=Lockhart RS | year = 1972| title = Levels of processing: A framework for memory research | doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 671–84 | journal = Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior }}</ref>

===Hearing===

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Several brain imaging studies using [[positron emission tomography]] and [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] techniques have shown that higher levels of processing [[correlate]] with more brain activity and activity in different parts of the brain than lower levels. For example, in a lexical analysis task, subjects showed activity in the [[prefrontal cortex|left inferior prefrontal cortex]] only when identifying whether the word represented a living or nonliving object, and not when identifying whether or not the word contained an "a".<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1073/pnas.91.6.2008| volume = 91| issue = 6| pages = 2008–2011| last = Kapur

| first = S|author2=FIM Craik |author3=E Tulving |author4=AA Wilson |author5=S Houle |author6=GM Brown | title = Neuroanatomical Correlates of Encoding in Episodic Memory: Levels of Processing Effect | journal = [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | year = 1994 | pmid = 8134340| pmc = 43298 }}</ref> Similarly, an auditory analysis task showed increased activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex when subjects performed increasingly [[semantic]] word manipulations.<ref name = Fletcher/> Synaptic aspects of word recognition have been correlated with the [[Operculum (brain)|left frontal operculum]] and the cortex lining the junction of the inferior frontal and inferior precentral sulcus.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/cercor/10.7.698 | volume = 10 | issue = 7

| pages = 698–705 | last = Friederici | first = AD |author2=Opitz B |author3=Yves von Cramon D | title = Segregating semantic and syntactic aspects of processing in the human brain: an fMRI investigation of different word types | journal = Cereb. Cortex | year = 2000 | url = http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/10/7/698 | format = pdf | pmid = 10906316}}</ref> The self-reference effect also has neural correlates with a region of the medial [[prefrontal cortex]], which was activated in an experiment where subjects analyzed the relevance of data to themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Kelley | first = WM |author2=Macrae CN |author3=Wyland CL |author4=Caglar S |author5=Inati S |author6= Heatherton TF | title = Finding the self? An event-related fMRI study |year = 2002 | doi = 10.1162/08989290260138672 | pages = 785–794 | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | pmid = 12167262 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.522.2494 }}</ref> Specificity of processing is explained on a neurological basis by studies that show brain activity in the same ___location when a visual memory is encoded and retrieved, and lexical memory in a different ___location.<ref name = Vaidya2002/> Visual memory areas were mostly located within the bilateral [[Extrastriate cortex|extrastriate visual cortex]].

==Mental disorders==