Content deleted Content added
m task |
m task, replaced: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition → Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (4) |
||
Line 12:
===Specificity of processing===
Specificity of processing describes the increased recall value of a stimulus when presented in the method with which it was inputed. For example, auditory stimuli (spoken words and sounds) have the highest recall value when spoken, and visual stimuli have the highest recall value when a subject is presented with images.<ref name = Vaidya2002>{{Cite journal| volume = 40| pages = 2136–2143| last = Vaidya| first = CJ |author2=Zhao M |author3=Desmond JE |author4=Gabrieli JDE | title = Evidence for cortical encoding specificity in episodic memory: memory-induced re-activation of picture processing areas | journal = Neuropsychologia | year = 2002 | url = http://web.mit.edu/gabrieli-lab/Publications/2002/Vaidya.Neuropsy.2002.pdf | doi = 10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00053-2 | format = pdf | pmid = 12208009| issue = 12 }}</ref> In writing tasks, words are recalled most effectively with semantic cues (asking for words with a particular meaning) if they are encoded semantically (self-generated by the subject as being related to a particular meaning). Words are recalled most effectively with data-driven cues (word completion) if they are read, rather than generated by a subject.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 15| issue = 4| pages = 657–668| last = Blaxton| first = TA| title = Investigating dissociations among memory measures: Support for a transfer-appropriate processing framework| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | year = 1989| url = http://www.colby.edu/psychology/ps341fa06/papers/Blaxton,%201989.pdf | format = pdf | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.15.4.657 }}</ref>
===Self-reference effect===
Line 20:
===Implicit memory and levels-of-processing===
Implicit memory tests, in contrast with explicit memory tests, measure the recall value of a particular stimulus based on later performance on stimulus-related tasks. During these tasks, the subject does not explicitly recall the stimulus, but the previous stimulus still affects performance.<ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 45 | pages = 1043–1056 | last = Roediger | first = HL | title = Implicit memory: Retention without remembering | journal = American Psychologist | year = 1990 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.45.9.1043 | pmid = 2221571 | issue = 9 }}</ref> For example, in a word-completion implicit memory task, if a subject reads a list containing the word "dog", the subject provides this word more readily when asked for three-letter words beginning in "d". The levels-of-processing effect is only found for explicit memory tests. One study found that word completion tasks were unaffected by levels of semantic encodings achieved using three words with various levels of meaning in common.<ref>{{Cite journal | issn = 0002-9556 | volume = 102 | issue = 2 | pages = 151–181 | last = Schacter | first = DL |author2=McGlynn SM | title = Implicit memory: Effects of elaboration depend on unitization | journal = The American Journal of Psychology | year = 1989 | doi = 10.2307/1422950 | jstor = 1422950 }}</ref> Another found that typical level-of-processing effects are reversed in word completion tasks; subjects recalled pictures pairs more completely if they were shown a word representing a picture rather than asked to rate a picture for pleasantness (semantic encoding).<ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = 1251–1269 | last = Roediger | first = HL |author2=Stadler ML |author3=Weldon MS |author4=Riegler GL | title = Direct comparison of two implicit memory tests: word fragment and word stem completion | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | year = 1992 | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.18.6.1251 | pmid = 1447550 }}</ref> Typical level-of-processing theory would predict that picture encodings would create deeper processing than lexical encoding.
"Memory over the short term and the long term has been thought to differ in many ways in terms of capacity, the underlying neural substrates, and the types of processes that support performance."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rose | first1 = N. S. | last2 = Craik | first2 = F. M. | year = 2012 | title = A processing approach to the working memory/long-term memory distinction: Evidence from the levels-of-processing span task | url = | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | volume = 38 | issue = 4| pages = 1019–1029 | doi = 10.1037/a0026976 | pmid = 22268911 }}</ref>
====Long-term memory====
Line 32:
===Vision===
[[Visual perception|Visual input]] creates the strongest recall value of all senses, and also allows the widest spectrum of levels-of-processing modifiers. It is also one of the most widely studied. Within visual studies, pictures have been shown to have a greater recall value than words – the [[picture superiority effect]]. However, semantic associations have the reverse effect in picture memories appear to be reversed to those in other memories. When logical details are stressed, rather than physical details, an image's recall value becomes lower.<ref>{{Cite journal | issn = 0278-7393 | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = 284–98 | last = Intraub | first = H |author2=Nicklos S | title = Levels of processing and picture memory: the physical superiority effect| pmid = 3157769 | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | year = 1985 | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.11.2.284 }}</ref> When comparing [[orthography|orthographic]] (capitalization, letter and word shape), phonological (word sound) and semantic (word meaning) [[Encoding (memory)|encoding]] cues, the highest levels of recall were found with the meanings of the words, followed by their sounds and finally the written and shape-based cues were found to generate the least ability to stimulate recall.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Craik | first = FIM |author2=Lockhart RS | year = 1972| title = Levels of processing: A framework for memory research | doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 671–84 | journal = Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior }}</ref>
===Hearing===
| |||