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[[File:Wind Generation Percentage Bar Chart U.S. 2011.svg|thumb|right|Over the entire year more than 20 percent of South Dakota's electricity is generated from wind power.]]
Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds, air density, and turbine characteristics (among other factors). If wind speed is too low (less than about 2.5 m/s) then the wind turbines will not be able to make electricity, and if it is too high (more than about 25 m/s) the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage. While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.<ref name="IEA2005WindVar"/><ref name=connect/><ref name=Archer2007/><ref name = Diesendorf>{{cite journal| author = Diesendorf, Mark |year= 2007| title =
* '''Intermittence:''' Regions smaller than [[Synoptic scale meteorology|synoptic scale]] (the size of an average country) have mostly the same weather and thus around the same wind power, unless local conditions favor special winds. Some studies show that wind farms spread over a geographically diverse area will as a whole rarely stop producing power altogether.<ref name=connect/><ref name=Archer2007/> However this is rarely the case for smaller areas with uniform geography such as Ireland,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/withouthotair/c26/page_187.shtml |title=Sustainable Energy - without the hot air. Fluctuations and storage|author=David JC MacKay}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atom.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=92&Itemid=73 |title=Czy w Polsce wiatr wystarczy zamiast elektrowni atomowych?|trans-title=Can the wind suffice instead of nuclear power in Poland? |language=Polish |publisher=atom.edu.pl |author=Andrzej Strupczewski}}</ref><ref name='BaseFallacy'>{{cite web|url=http://www.sustainabilitycentre.com.au/BaseloadFallacy.pdf |title=The Base-Load Fallacy |accessdate=2008-10-18 |last=Diesendorf |first=Mark |date = August 2007|format=PDF |work=Institute of Environmental Studies |publisher=www.energyscience.org.au }}</ref> Scotland<ref>[http://www.windaction.org/posts/30544-report-questions-wind-power-s-ability-to-deliver-electricity-when-most-needed#.WHkNM7kSiyA "Analysis of UK Wind Generation"] 2011</ref> and Denmark which have several days per year with little wind power.<ref name="Denmark2002">{{
* '''Capacity Factor:''' Wind power typically has a capacity factor of 20-40%.<ref name="RERLWind"/><ref name='BWEAMyth'>{{cite web|url=http://www.bwea.com/pdf/ref_three.pdf |title=Blowing Away the Myths |accessdate=2008-10-16 |date=February 2005 |format=PDF |work=The British Wind Energy Association |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710024744/http://www.bwea.com/pdf/ref_three.pdf |archivedate=2007-07-10 |df= }}</ref>
* '''Dispatchability:''' Wind power is "highly non-dispatchable".<ref name='NordelNonDispatch'>{{cite web|url=http://cwec.ucdavis.edu/rpsintegration/library/Nordel%20non-dispatchable%20production%20May00.pdf |title=Non-dispatchable Production in the Nordel System |accessdate=2008-10-18 |date = May 2000|format=PDF |work=Nordel's Grid Group }}</ref> MISO, which operates a large section of the U.S. grid, has over 13,000 MW of wind power under its control and is able to manage this large amount of wind power by operating it as dispatchable intermittent resources.<ref>{{cite web|title=How Energy Markets Can Solve Modern Challenges|url= http://morningconsult.com/opinions/energy-markets-can-solve-modern-challenges/ |publisher=Morning Consult|accessdate=22 May 2015}}</ref>
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| pages = 1701–1717
| url = http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/winds/aj07_jamc.pdf
| postscript = <!--None-->
| bibcode=2007JApMC..46.1701A
| citeseerx = 10.1.1.475.4620
}}</ref> When calculating the generating capacity available to meet summer peak demand, [[Electric Reliability Council of Texas|ERCOT]] (manages Texas grid) counts wind generation at 8.7% of nameplate capacity.<ref>[http://www.ercot.com/news/press_releases/show/329 ERCOT]</ref>
Wind generates about 16% (EWEA – 2011 European Statistics, February 2012) of electric energy in [[Wind power in Spain|Spain]] and [[Wind power in Portugal|Portugal]],<ref name=iieeaa/> 9% in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]],<ref name="iieeaa"/> and 7% in [[Germany]].<ref name="GEA_wind"/> Wind provides around 40% of the annual electricity generated in [[Denmark]]<ref name=enet42>{{cite web |url= http://energinet.dk/EN/El/Nyheder/Sider/Dansk-vindstroem-slaar-igen-rekord-42-procent.aspx |title= New record-breaking year for Danish wind power |publisher= [[Energinet.dk]] |date= 15 January 2016 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160125083857/http://energinet.dk/EN/El/Nyheder/Sider/Dansk-vindstroem-slaar-igen-rekord-42-procent.aspx |archivedate= 25 January 2016 |df= }}</ref> (up from 20% in 2005);<ref name="ens.dk">{{cite web |url=http://www.ens.dk/graphics/Publikationer/Statistik_UK/Energy_statics_2006/html/chapter03.htm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-02-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20120802081858/http://www.ens.dk/graphics/Publikationer/Statistik_UK/Energy_statics_2006/html/chapter03.htm |archivedate=2012-08-02 |df= }}</ref><ref>[http://www.ens.dk/graphics/Publikationer/Energipolitik_UK/Engelsk_endelig_udgave_visionaer_energipolitikA4.pdf En visionr dansk energipolitik frem til 2025<!-- Bot generated title -->]{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> to meet this percentage Denmark exports surpluses and imports during shortfalls to and from the EU grid, particularly Norwegian Hydro, to balance supply with demand.<ref name="Modern Power Systems 2009"/> <!-- It also uses large numbers of Combined Heat And power stations which can rapidly flex output. The large thermal stores in these systems are also utilised to store surplus wind energy, since thermal storage is the cheapest form of energy storage. {Not yet}-->
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The penetration of intermittent renewables in most power grids is low, global electricity production in 2014 was supplied by 3.1% wind, and 1% solar.<ref>http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low1.pdf pg31</ref> Wind generates roughly 16% of electric energy in [[Wind power in Spain|Spain]] and [[Wind power in Portugal|Portugal]],<ref name=iieeaa>[[International Energy Agency]] (2009). [http://www.ieawind.org/AnnualReports_PDF/2008/2008%20AR_small.pdf IEA Wind Energy: Annual Report 2008] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720003111/http://www.ieawind.org/AnnualReports_PDF/2008/2008%20AR_small.pdf |date=2011-07-20 }} p. 9.</ref> 15.3% in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Renewable Energy in Ireland 2012|url=http://www.seai.ie/Publications/Statistics_Publications/Renewable_Energy_in_Ireland/Renewable-Energy-in-Ireland-2012.pdf|website=Sustainable Energy Authority in Ireland|accessdate=19 November 2014}}</ref> and 7% in [[Germany]].<ref name='GEA_wind'>{{cite web |url=http://www.wind-energie.de/en/wind-energy-in-germany/ |title=Wind Energy in Germany |accessdate=2008-10-15 |work=Germany WindEnergy Association |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324033215/http://www.wind-energie.de/en/wind-energy-in-germany/ |archivedate=2011-03-24 |df= }}</ref> {{As of|2014}}, wind provides 39% of the electricity generated in [[Denmark]].<ref name=en2014>Rasmussen, Jesper Nørskov. "[http://energinet.dk/DA/El/Nyheder/Sider/Vindmoeller-slog-rekord-i-2014.aspx Vindmøller slog rekord i 2014 ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106223105/http://energinet.dk/DA/El/Nyheder/Sider/Vindmoeller-slog-rekord-i-2014.aspx |date=2015-01-06 }}" (in Danish) ''[[Energinet.dk]]'', 6 January 2015. Accessed: 6 January 2015.</ref><ref>https://online.wsj.com/articles/denmarks-wind-power-output-rises-to-record-in-first-half-1409750563</ref><ref name=en2013>Carsten Vittrup. "[http://energinet.dk/EN/El/Nyheder/Sider/2013-var-et-rekordaar-for-dansk-vindkraft.aspx 2013 was a record-setting year for Danish wind power] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018055427/http://energinet.dk/EN/El/Nyheder/Sider/2013-var-et-rekordaar-for-dansk-vindkraft.aspx |date=2014-10-18 }}" (in Danish) ''[[Energinet.dk]]'', 15 January 2014. Accessed: 20 January 2014.</ref> To operate with this level of penetration, Denmark exports surpluses and imports during shortfalls to and from neighbouring countries, particularly hydroelectric power from Norway, to balance supply with demand.<ref name="Modern Power Systems 2009">''Modern Power Systems'', Sept 25, 2009, Maj. Dang Trong</ref> It also uses large numbers of combined heat and power ([[cogeneration|CHP]]) stations which can rapidly adjust output.<ref name=DKCHP>{{cite web|url=http://pfbach.dk/firma_pfb/pfb_wind_power_integration_in_denmark_2015.pdf#page=7|author=Bach, P.F.|title= Towards 50% Wind Electricity in Denmark, slide 7|date= 2015}}</ref>
The intermittency and variability of renewable energy sources can be reduced and accommodated by diversifying their technology type and geographical ___location, forecasting their variation, and integrating them with dispatchable renewables (such as hydropower, geothermal, and biomass). Combining this with energy storage and demand response can create a power system that can reliably match real-time energy demand.<ref>{{Cite
<blockquote>
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| Forecast the weather (winds, sunlight, waves, tides and precipitation) to better plan for energy supply needs.<ref name=jacob2010/>
}}
Technological solutions to mitigate large-scale wind energy type intermittency exist such as increased interconnection (the [[European super grid]]), [[Demand response]], [[load management]], [[diesel generators]] (in the [[National Grid (Great Britain)|British National Grid]], Frequency Response / [[National Grid Reserve Service]] type schemes, and use of existing power stations on standby. Studies by academics and grid operators indicate that the cost of compensating for intermittency is expected to be high at levels of penetration above the low levels currently in use today<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/21/business/energy-environment/21wind.html | work=The New York Times | title=Expanding Use of Wind Power Feasible, but May Be Costly | first=Matthew L. | last=Wald | date=2010-01-21 | accessdate=2010-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/32284 | title=Economic modeling of intermittency in wind power generation| year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceere.org/rerl/about_wind/RERL_Fact_Sheet_2a_Capacity_Factor.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-03-09 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001205145/http://www.ceere.org/rerl/about_wind/RERL_Fact_Sheet_2a_Capacity_Factor.pdf |archivedate=2008-10-01 |df= }}</ref> Large, distributed power grids are better able to deal with high levels of penetration than small, isolated grids. For a hypothetical European-wide power grid, analysis has shown that wind energy penetration levels as high as 70% are viable,<ref>[http://www.claverton-energy.com/common-affordable-and-renewable-electricity-supply-for-europe-and-its-neighbourhood.html Affordable Renewable Electricity Supply for Europe and its Neighbours] Dr Gregor Czisch, Kassell University, paper at Claverton Energy Conference, Bath October 24, 2008</ref> and that the cost of the extra transmission lines would be only around 10% of the turbine cost, yielding power at around present day prices.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.claverton-energy.com/green-grid-article-in-new-scientist-by-david-strahan-the-oil-drum-on-hvdc-supergrids.html | title=Green grid - Article in New Scientist by David Strahan (The Oil Drum) on HVDC supergrids | Claverton Group}}</ref> Smaller grids may be less tolerant to high levels of penetration.<ref name="All_Island_Grid_Overview"/><ref name='Czisch100Renew'>{{cite web
|url=http://www.risoe.dk/rispubl/reports/ris-r-1608_186-195.pdf
|title=Realisable Scenarios for a Future Electricity Supply based 100% on Renewable Energies
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|title=The Costs and Impacts of Intermittency
|publisher=UK Energy Research Council
|isbn=978-1-903144-04-
|last1=Gross
|first1=Robert
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===Views of critics of high penetration renewable energy use===
For many years there was a consensus within the electric utilities in the U.S. that renewable electricity generators such as wind and solar are so unreliable and intermittent that they will never be able to contribute significantly to electric supply or provide baseload power. Thomas Petersnik, an analyst with the U.S. Energy Information Administration put it this way: "by and large, renewable energy sources are too rare, too distant, too uncertain, and too ill-timed to provide significant supplies at times and places of need".<ref name="Benjamin Sovacool 2009">{{
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; clear: right; margin: 0em 0em 1.5em 1em;"
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| Nuclear (in a [[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]])
|}
According to a transatlantic collaborative research paper on [[EROEI|Energy return on energy Invested]](EROEI), conducted by 6 analysts and led by D. Weißbach, as published in the [[peer reviewed]] journal ''Energy'' in 2013. The uncorrected for their intermittency("unbuffered") EROEI for each energy source analyzed is as depicted in the attached table at right,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544213000492 |title=Energy intensities, EROIs (energy returned on invested), and energy payback times of electricity generating power plants. | doi=10.1016/j.energy.2013.01.029 | volume=52 |journal=Energy |pages=210–221|date=April 2013 |last1=Weißbach |first1=D. |last2=Ruprecht |first2=G. |last3=Huke |first3=A. |last4=Czerski |first4=K. |last5=Gottlieb |first5=S. |last6=Hussein |first6=A. }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">[[Dailykos]] - GETTING TO ZERO: Is renewable energy economically viable? by Keith Pickering MON JUL 08, 2013 AT 04:30 AM PDT.</ref> while the buffered(corrected for their intermittency) EROEI stated in the paper for all [[low carbon power]] sources, with the exception of nuclear and biomass, were yet lower still. As when corrected for their weather intermittency/"buffered", the EROEI figures for intermittent energy sources as stated in the paper is diminished - a reduction of EROEI dependent on [[capacity factor|how reliant they are on back up energy sources]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544213000492 |title=Energy intensities, EROIs (energy returned on invested), and energy payback times of electricity generating power plants. Energy Volume 52, 1 April 2013, pages 210–221 | doi=10.1016/j.energy.2013.01.029 | volume=52 |journal=Energy |pages=210–221|date=April 2013 |last1=Weißbach |first1=D. |last2=Ruprecht |first2=G. |last3=Huke |first3=A. |last4=Czerski |first4=K. |last5=Gottlieb |first5=S. |last6=Hussein |first6=A. }}</ref>
===Views of proponents of high penetration renewable energy use===
{{See also|Renewable Electricity and the Grid|Energy security and renewable technology}}
The U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Chairman Jon Wellinghoff has stated that "baseload capacity is going to become an anachronism" and that no new nuclear or coal plants may ever be needed in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.claverton-energy.com/a-very-significant-admission-by-the-us-ferc-chairman-that-the-issue-of-integrating-variable-sources-of-power-is-not-such-a-big-issue.html | title=Wind a very significant admission by the US FERC chairman that the issue of integrating variable sources of power is not such a big issue - Power and Reliability: The Roles of Baseload and Variable Resources | Claverton Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ferc.gov/news/videos/wellinghoff/2009/04-22-09-wellinghoff-transcript.pdf |title=
* [[Bio-energy]], based on the combustion of crops and crop residues, or their gasification followed by combustion of the gas.
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