Passive sampling: Difference between revisions

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'''Passive sampling''' is an [[environmental monitoring]] technique involving the use of a collecting medium, such as a man-made device or biological [[organism]], to accumulate chemical [[pollutant]]s in the environment over time. This is in contrast to [[Environmental monitoring#Grab samples|grab sampling]], which involves taking a sample directly from the media of interest at one point in time. In passive sampling, average chemical concentrations are calculated over a device's deployment time, which avoids the need to visit a sampling site multiple times to collect multiple representative samples.<ref name = Main>{{cite journal |last1=Górecki |first1=Tadeusz |last2=Namieśnik |first2=Jacek |title=Passive sampling |journal=Trends in Analytical Chemistry |date=2002 |volume=21 |issue=4 }}</ref> Currently, passive samplers have been developed and deployed to detect toxic metals, [[pesticide]]s, [[Drug|pharmaceuticals]], [[radionuclide]]s, [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (PAHs), [[polychlorinated biphenyl]]s (PCBs), and other organic compounds in water,<ref name = Chem1>{{cite journal |last1=Charriau |first1=Adeline |last2=Lissalde |first2=Sophie |last3=Poulier |first3=Gaëlle |last4=Mazzella |first4=Nicolas |last5=Buzier |first5=Rémy |last6=Guibaud |first6=Gilles |title=Overview of the Chemcatcher® for the passive sampling of various pollutants in aquatic environments Part A: Principles, calibration, preparation and analysis of the sampler |journal=Talanta |date=2016 |volume=148 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039914015301041?via%3Dihub |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref><ref name = Chem2>{{cite journal |last1=Lissalde |first1=Sophie |last2=Charriau |first2=Adeline |last3=Poulier |first3=Gaëlle |last4=Mazzella |first4=Nicolas |last5=Buzier |first5=Rémy |last6=Giubaud |first6=Giles |title=Overview of the Chemcatcher® for the passive sampling of various pollutants in aquatic environments Part B: Field handling and environmental applications for the monitoring of pollutants and their biological effects |journal=Talanta |date=2016 |volume=148 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039914015301181 |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref><ref name = Brumbaugh>{{cite journal |last1=Brumbaugh |first1=WG |last2=Petty |first2=JD |last3=Huckins |first3=JN |last4=Manahan |first4=SE |title=Stabilized Liquid Membrane Device (SLMD) for the Passive, Integrative Sampling of Labile Metals in Water |journal=Water, Air, and Soil Pollution |date=2002 |volume=133 |urlpages=109–119 |doi=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1012923529742 |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref><ref name = POCISSPMD>{{cite web |title=Guidelines for the Use of the Semipermeable Membrane Device (SPMD) and the Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) in Environmental Monitoring Studies |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/tm1d4/ |publisher=United States Geological Survey |accessdate=30 May 2018}}</ref> while some passive samplers can detect hazardous substances in the air.<ref name = Sigma>{{cite web |title=Passive (Diffusive) Sampling Overview |url=https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/analytical-chromatography/air-monitoring/passive-sampling.html |website=Sigma-Aldrich |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref><ref name = LichData>{{cite web |title=Lichen Monitoring in US National Forests and Parks Reports, Publications and Other Resources |url=http://gis.nacse.org/lichenair/?page=reports |website=National Lichens & Air Quality Database and Clearinghouse |publisher=United States Forest Service |accessdate=31 May 2018}}</ref><ref name = Tubes />

==Theory and application==

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==Passive sampling in water==

[[File:Chemcatcher_Kit_(800x533).jpg|thumb|200px|A Chemcatcher deployment kit with three sampling discs.]]

Several kinds of passive sampling devices exist for monitoring pollutants present in water. In addition to these devices, organisms, such as [[mussel]]s, living in the environment also "passively sample" contaminants ([[bioaccumulation]]) and can be used to monitor water pollution ([[Aquatic biomonitoring|biomonitoring]]).<ref name="Mussel">{{cite journal |last1=Sericano |first1=JL |last2=Wade |first2=TL |last3=Jackson |first3=TJ |last4=Brooks |first4=JM |last5=Tripp |first5=BW |last6=Farrington |first6=JW |last7=Mee |first7=LD |last8=Readmann |first8=JW |last9=Villeneuve |first9=JP |last10=Goldberg |first10=ED |title=Trace Organic Contamination in the Americas: An Overview of the US National Status & Trends and the International 'Mussel Watch' Programmes |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=1995 |volume=31 |issue=4-124–12}}</ref>

===Chemcatcher===

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===Peepers===

Peepers are passive [[diffusion]] samplers used for metals in freshwater and marine [[sediment]] pore water, so they can be used to find areas that may have metal-contaminated sediments. Peepers are plastic vessels filled with clean water and covered in a [[Dialysis (biochemistry)|dialysis membrane]], which allows metals in sediment pore water to enter the water inside the peeper.<ref name="Peeper1">{{cite journal |last1=Serbst |first1=JR |last2=Burgess |first2=RM |last3=Kuhn |first3=A |last4=Edwards |first4=PA |last5=Cantwell |first5=MG |title=Precision of Dialysis (Peeper) Sampling of Cadmium in Marine Sediment Interstitial Water |journal=Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |date=2003 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=297–305 |pmid=14674581}}</ref> They are usually placed deep enough into sediment to be in an [[Anoxic waters|anoxic]] environment, in which metals will be soluble enough to sample.<ref name = Missouri /> If the peepers are deployed long enough so the sediment pore water and contained peeper water reach equilibrium, they can accurately provide metal concentrations in sampled sediment pore water.<ref name = Peeper1 />

===Polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS)===

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==Passive sampling in air==

Passive sampling can also be accomplished for contaminants in the air, including airborne particles and hazardous vapors and gases. This can be done with man-made devices or with biomonitoring organisms, such as [[Lichen#Effects of air pollution|lichens]].<ref name = LichData /><ref name="Lichen">{{cite journal |last1=Garty |first1=J |title=Biomonitoring Atmospheric Heavy Metals with Lichens: Theory and Application |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |date=2001 |volume=20 |issue=4 |urlpages=https://www.tandfonline.com/309–371 |doi/abs/=10.1080/20013591099254 }}</ref>

===Sorbent tubes===

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Since passive sampling provides information about average contaminant concentrations, all possible concentrations over the sampler deployment time are included in this average value. However, there is no way of finding out the complete range of contaminant concentrations over the deployment time at a single site with only passive sampling.<ref name = Main /> If high and low concentrations of contaminants throughout the sampling period are needed, other sampling methods should be used in conjunction with passive sampling.

Not all passive samplers have universally accurate ways to convert contaminant masses accumulated into water concentrations, which are used in government regulation, such as the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] [[Clean Water Act]].<ref name="EPA">{{cite web |title=National Recommended Water Quality Criteria - Aquatic Life Criteria Table |url=https://www.epa.gov/wqc/national-recommended-water-quality-criteria-aquatic-life-criteria-table |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |accessdate=4 June 2018|date=2015-09-03 }}</ref> With some samplers, as with the DGT, this can be done using equations developed for the samplers, but not all samplers have these. Passive sampler deployment time is also limited depending on the sampler's capacity; for example, SLMDs have been deployed for month-long periods, but may reach saturation and stop sampling much sooner if metal concentrations and water flow rates are high enough.<ref name = Brumbaugh /> However, this issue is avoidable if literature on the relevant passive sampler is examined for background information about sampler capacity and ideal deployment times prior to deployment.

==References==