Cities for Climate Protection program: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 02:23, 2 December 2019

Revision as of 16:01, 6 March 2020

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== The Cities for Climate Protection program ==

Established in 1993, the CCP program houses more than 650 municipal governments representing over 30 participatory countries.<ref name="Toly, 2008">{{cite journal|last=Toly|first=Noah|title=Transnational Municipal Networks in Climate Politics: From Global Governance to Global Politics|journal=Globalizations|year=2008|volume=5|issue=3|pages=341–356|doi=10.1080/14747730802252479}}</ref> The CCP program assumes that whilst single local government efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) may be reasonably modest, by working together as a network of authoritative bodies, local authorities can significantly influence efforts to reduce GHG emissions.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004">{{cite journal|last=Betsill|first=Michele|author2=Bulkeley, H.|title=Transnational Networks and Global Environmental Governance: The Cities for Climate Protection Program|journal=International Studies Quarterly|year=2004|volume=48|pages=471–493|doi=10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00310.x}}</ref> ). As areas of the world with the largest populations and most significant population growth, the world’sworld's cities populations reached an extortionate 3.2 billion in 2005, set to increase to a scintillating 5 billion by 2030.<ref name="Toly, 2008" /> Thus indicating by representing 50% of the global population within cities in 2005,<ref name="Toly, 2008" /> cities are a pivotal base point to raise the awareness and initiate action toward reducing GHG emissions. Local authorities of the CCP program ‘regulate, advise, and facilitate action by local communities and stakeholders…in addressing environmental impacts…of energy management, transport, and planning’.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" />

ICLEI’sICLEI's initial pilot project, the Urban CO2 Reduction Project, brought together American, Canadian and European cities to develop a municipal planning framework to reduce GHG emissions and produce an energy management strategy,<ref name="Lindseth, 2004">{{cite journal|last=Lindseth|first=Gard|title=The Cities for Climate Protection Campaign (CCPC) and the Framing of Local Climate Policy|journal=Local Environment|year=2004|volume=9|issue=4|pages=325–336|doi=10.1080/1354983042000246252}}</ref> leading to the founding of the CCP program. As part of the figuring of the CCP program network, local authorities engaged with national and international governments, developing and implementing GHG emission reduction strategies, and strategies to protect the ability of the biological environment to remove CO2.<ref name="ICLEI 1993a">{{cite book|last=ICLEI|title=Municipal Leader’s Declaration on Climate Change and the Urban Environment|year=1993a|publisher=United Nations|___location=New York}}</ref> From the provision of the founding of the CCP program network, four main goals were stated:

• ‘Re-enforce local commitments in reducing urban GHG emissions

• Disseminating planning and management tools to facilitate development of cost-effective CO2 reduction policies

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== Decentralization of the CCP program ==

ICLEI initially operated a top-down governing approach of the CCP program, coordinated from the ICLEI’sICLEI's international base, Toronto.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> In an attempt to introduce a [[multi-level governance]] approach toward the delivery of the CCP program, national and regional campaigns were formed, decentralising the program. The UK, US, Australia, Canada, Finland, India, Mexico and South Africa amongst others saw national campaigns, whilst regional campaigns merged throughout Europe, Asia and Latin America.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> Financial resources are contributed significantly by nation-state governments especially in the US, Canada and Australia toward their national campaigns. Similarly, the ICLEI Europe receives direct funding from the European Commission, creating resource opportunities for transnational networks through project and initiative competition.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> The decentralisation still demonstrates resilient transnational [[network governance]] but now operating on a multi-level governance scale.

== The CCP as a Local Climate Policy ==

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== The CCP program as a Transnational Governance Network ==

Transnational governance is distinct in that it involves both state and non-state actors, contributing differing sources and capacities of authority.<ref name="Andonova et al, 2009">{{cite journal|last=Andonova|first=L. B |author2=Betsill, M. M. |author3=Bulkeley, H|title=Transnational Climate Governance.|journal=Global Environmental Politics|year=2009|volume=9|issue=2|pages=52–73|doi=10.1162/glep.2009.9.2.52}}</ref> As a network, they involve ‘regular interaction across national boundaries when at least one actor is a non-state agent or does not operate on behalf of a national government or intergovernmental organisation’.<ref name="Risse-Kappen, 1995">{{cite book|last=Risse-Kappen|first=T|title=Bringing Transnational Relations Back In: Non-State Actors, Domestic Structures and International Institutions|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|___location=Cambridge}}</ref> The CCP program operates within nation-states via national and regional campaigns, as well as cross boundaries between international nations, between state and non-state actors, fitting Risse-Kappen’sKappen's transnational governance network definition. Transnational governance networks assemble information, knowledge and values objectifying ‘the integration of new conceptions of… environmental phenomena into everyday worldwide views and practices’ of public and private actors.<ref name="Lipschutz, R">{{cite book |last=Lipschutz |first=R |title=Saving the Seas: Values, Scientists, and International Governance |year=1997 |publisher=Maryland Sea Grant College|___location=College Park, MD |authorlink=Networks of Knowledge and Practice: Global Civil Society and Protection of the Global Environment |editor=Brooks, L. A. |editor2=VanDeever, S. D}}</ref> The CCP program is identified as a public transnational governance network, as opposed to a hybrid or private transnational network, as such networks are established by and for public actors.<ref name="Andonova et al, 2009" /> Public transnational governance networks are founded via ductile co-operation such as agreements of understanding, exemplified by the resolution or formal declaration imposed by a pending member of the CCP program, rather than formal sanctions of intergovernmental agreements from the state.<ref name="Andonova et al, 2009" />

<ref name="Slaughter, 2004">{{cite book|last=Slaughter|first=A. M.|title=A New World Order|url=https://archive.org/details/newworldorderann00slau|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|___location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> and <ref name="Raustiala, K. 2002">{{cite journal|last=Raustiala|first=K|title=The Architecture of International Co-operation: Trans-governmental Networks and the Future of International Law|journal=Virginia Journal of International Law|year=2002|volume=43|issue=1|pages=1–92}}</ref> are celebrated for their work in transnational governance networks in global governance for its importance of development in globalisation. The CCP program is the most influential example of this celebratory work along the climate scale, as a public transnational governance network, involving public authorities in governance across both local and global scales. The CCP program as a transnational governance network exemplifies how boundaries of formal intergovernmental diplomacy are over-reached, engaging in public authoritative steering in seeking to address the mitigation of GHG emissions, at a local scale.<ref name="Andonova et al, 2009" /> As a transnational governance network, the CCP program network is a crucial means in improving municipal performance in respect to climate change. The networks aid on facilitating the process by offering ways for members to contact each other, in circumstances that may involve a joint bid for climate change project funding, or for submitting bids individually.<ref name="Kern & Bulkeley, 2009">{{cite journal|last=Kern|first=Kristine|author2=Bulkeley, H|title=Cities, Europeanisation and Multi-level Governance: Governing Climate Change through Transnational Municipal Networks|journal=Journal of Common Market Studies|year=2009|volume=47|issue=2|pages=309–332|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5965.2009.00806.x}}</ref>

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As a transnational governance network, joining as a CCP member city is a benefit to a city in itself. Advantages for CCP cities account for exchanges of experience, access to funding and political kudos, and the development of direct links between CCP member cities from the local to international level.<ref name="Kern & Bulkeley, 2009"/> CCP cities have benefited personally, able to voice concerns, interact and learn within a supportive environment, and gain international experience and access to financial resources whilst promoting interests within local government.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> ). In some cases, Leicester and Newcastle, UK, the CCP program has given enhanced political kudos, creating opportunities for matters of energy and climate mitigation strategies to rise on their local agendas.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> ). Initiatives undertaken by CCP cities have gained national and international recognition, proving to be a valued resource provided by the transnational governance network.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> Newcastle, New South Wales and Denver, US, were cities that already had climate change inventories on their local agendas before joining the CCP program network. Only by participating in the transnational governance network were their climate change ethoses and inventories reinforced through their membership. By offering itself up, the CCP program, as a transnational network has been successful in building local capacity, due to the political and financial resources obtained through close membership within the network. Individuals benefiting from this position have been able to allow climate change mitigation strategies to join in line with issues of local significance allowing for the need to responsibly tackle global issues at a local scale.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" />

Crucially, while it is seen single local government action on reducing GHG emissions may be relatively ineffective, working together under a transnational governance network frame collectively, such as the CCP cities, can make an important contribution towards the reduction and mitigation of global climate change.<ref name="Fay, 2007">{{cite journal|last=Fay|first=Chris|title=Think Locally, Act Globally: Lessons to Learn from the Cities for Climate Protection Campaign|journal=Innovations|year=2007|volume=7|pages=1–12|citeseerx=10.1.1.483.3390}}</ref> An example of a CCP success story is Denver, US. After joining the CCP program, Denver’sDenver's municipal government invested $1.6million into installing light-emitting diodes (LEDs) into all red traffic lights and ‘don’t walk’ signs across the city. The LEDs, having longer life spans and lower energy requirements, led to a $5million savings in energy use and maintenance for the city.<ref name="Fay, 2007"/>

== Barriers Toward CCP program Local Policy Action ==