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{{S|storia}}

L''''Impero Russo''' (''Росси́йская Импе́рия'', ''Rossijskaja Imperija'') fu uno stato esistente tra il regno di [[Pietro I di Russia|Pietro il Grande]] fino alla [[Rivoluzione russa]] del [[1917]]. Successe alla [[Moscovia]] e fu il predecessore dell'[[Unione Sovietica]]. Fu uno dei più grandi imperi mai esistiti. Nel [[1866]] si estendeva su tre continenti, [[Europa]], [[Asia]] e [[Nord America]].

== Storia ==

{{Vedi anche|Russia imperiale}}

==Governo ed amministrazione==

[[Image:Peter der-Grosse 1838.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Pietro I di Russia|Pietro il Grande]] proclamò ufficialmente l'esistenza dell'Impero russo nel [[1721]]]]

=== Problemi definitori ===

L'[[Almanacco di Gotha]] del [[1910]] descriveva la Russia come "una [[monarchia costituzionale]] governata da uno [[zar]] [[autocrazia|autocratico]]". La contraddizione di termini illustra bene la difficoltà di definire in una formula il sistema di governo, del tutto transitorio e ''[[sui generis]]'' instaurato nella Russia zarista dall'[[ottobre]] [[1905]]. Prima di quella data le leggi fondamentali della Russia descrivevano il potere dello Zar come "autocratico e [[monarchia assoluta|illimitato]]". Dopo l'apertura della [[Duma]], il [[27 aprile]] [[1906]], l'appellativo del sovrano divenne "imperatore ed autocrate di tutte le Russie" e l'attribuzione dell'aggettivo "illimitato" al suo potere scomparve. Non per questo la Russia era divenuta una monarchia costituzionale. Unicamente l'autocrazia si era autolimitata, sebbene non fu mai chiaro, nei pochi anni di sopravvivenza dello stato, se questa limitazione fosse definitiva o revocabile a discrezione del sovrano. Forse la definizione migliore per l'impero post [[1905]] sarebbe quella di "monarchia limitata, guidata da un imperatore autocratico".

===L'imperatore===

[[Pietro I di Russia|Pietro il Grande]] cambiò il suo titolo da [[Zar]] a ''Imperatore di tutte le Russie'' nel [[1721]]. Anche se i successori mantennero il titolo imperiale, l'autocrate fu comunemente noto come zar o zarina fino alla caduta dell'Impero a seguito della [[Rivoluzione di febbraio]] del [[1917]].

Fino al [[1905]] il potere dell'imperatore era limitato da due sole condizioni: l'appartenenza alla [[Chiesa ortodossa russa]] e l'obbedienza alle leggi di successione stabilite da [[Paolo I di Russia|Paolo I]]. Il [[17 ottobre]] [[1905]], la situazione cambiò. L'imperatore [[Nicola II di Russia|Nicola II]], con la firma del cosiddetto [[Manifesto di ottobre]] autolimitò il proprio [[potere legislativo]], decretando che nessuna legge sarebbe entrata in vigore senza l'approvazione della Duma imperiale, un'assemblea liberamente eletta su base nazionale. Come emerse dalle nuove Leggi Fondamentali rese pubbliche il [[23 aprile]] [[1906]], lo zar rimase comunque l'unica fonte del potere esecutivo, anche se un Consiglio dei Ministri lo avrebbe assitito nell'amministrazione, mantenne il potere assoluto sulla politica estera e di difesa, oltre che il diritto esclusivo di introdurre modifiche costituzionali. L'imperatore poteva anche emanare decreti d'emergenza (che la Duma avrebbe dovuto successivamente approvare) quando l'assemblea non era in sessione.

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===Imperial Council===

{{main|State Council of Imperial Russia}}

By the law of the [[20 February]] [[1906]], the Council of the Empire was associated with the Duma as a legislative [[Upper House]]; and from this time the legislative power has been exercised normally by the emperor only in concert with the two chambers.

The Council of the Empire, or Imperial Council, as reconstituted for this purpose, consisted of 196 members, of whom 98 were nominated by the emperor, while 98 were elective. The ministers, also nominated, were ''[[ex officio]]'' members. Of the elected members, 3 were returned by the "black" clergy (the monks), 3 by the "white" clergy (seculars), 18 by the corporations of nobles, 6 by the academy of sciences and the universities, 6 by the chambers of commerce, 6 by the industrial councils, 34 by the governments having zemstvos, 16 by those having no [[zemstvo]]s, and 6 by Poland. As a legislative body the powers of the Council were coordinate with those of the Duma; in practice, however, it has seldom if ever initiated legislation.

===The Duma and electoral system===

{{main|State Duma of the Russian Empire}}

The Duma of the Empire or Imperial Duma (Gosudarstvennaya Duma), which formed the [[Lower House]] of the Russian parliament, consisted (since the ukaz of [[2 June]] [[1907]]) of 442 members, elected by an exceedingly complicated process, so manipulated as to secure an overwhelming preponderance for the wealthy, and especially the landed classes, and also for the representatives of the Russian as opposed to the subject peoples. Each province of the empire, except of [[Central Asia]]n, returned a certain proportion of members (fixed in each case by aw in such a way as to give a preponderance to the Russian element), in addition to those returned by certain of the great cities. The members of the Duma are elected by electoral colleges in each government, and these in their turn are elected, like the zemstvos, by electoral assemblies chosen by the three classes of landed proprietors, citizens and peasants. In these assemblies the large proprietors sit in person, being thus electors in the second degree; the lesser proprietors are represented by delegates, and therefore elect in the third degree. The urban population, divided into two categories according to their taxable wealth, elects delegates direct to the college of the [[Guberniya|Governorates]], and is thus represented in the second degree; but the system of division into categories, according not to the number of taxpayers but to the amount they pay, gives a great preponderance to the richer classes. The [[peasants]] are represented only in the fourth degree, since the delegates to the electoral college are elected by the [[volost]]s. The [[workmen]], finally, are specially treated. Every industrial concern employing fifty hands or over elects one or more delegates to the electoral college of the government, in which, like the others, they form a separate ''curia''.

In the college itself the voting—secret and by ballot throughout—is by majority; and since this majority consists, under the actual system, of very conservative elements (the [[landowner]]s and urban delegates having fths of the votes), the progressive elements—however much they might preponderate in the country—would have no chance of representation at all save for the curious provision that one member at least in each government must be chosen from each of the five classes represented in the college. For example, were there no reactionary peasant among the delegates, a reactionary majority might be forced to return a [[Social Democrat]] to the Duma. As it is, though a fixed minimum of peasant delegates must be returned, they by no means probably represent the opinion of the peasantry. That in the Duma any Radical elements survive at all is mainly due to the peculiar franchise enjoyed by the seven largest towns &mdash; [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Moscow]], [[Kiev]], [[Odessa]], [[Riga]] and the Polish cities of [[Warsaw]] and [[Łódź]]. These elect their delegates to the Duma direct, and though their votes are divided into two curias (on the basis of taxable property) in such a way as to give the advantage to wealth, each returning the same number of delegates, the democratic colleges can at least return members of their own complexion.

===Council of Ministers===

{{main|Russian Council of Ministers}}

By the law of [[18 October]] 1905, to assist the emperor in the supreme administration a Council of Ministers (Sovyet Ministrov) was created, under a ''minister president'', the first appearance of a [[prime minister]] in Russia. This council consists of all the ministers and of the heads of the principal administrations. The ministries were as follows:

* of the Imperial Court, to which the administration of the apanages, the chapter of the imperial orders, the imperial palaces and theatres, and the [[Imperial Academy of Arts|Academy of Fine Arts]] are subordinated;

* [[Foreign Minister of Russia|Foreign Affairs]];

* [[Heads of military of Imperial Russia|War and Marine]];

* [[List of Finance Ministers of Imperial Russia|Finance]];

* Commerce and Industry (created in 1905);

* [[List of Ministers of Interior of Imperial Russia|Interior]] (including police, health, censorship and press, posts and telegraphs, foreign religions, statistics);

* Agriculture;

* Ways and Communications;

* [[List of Justice Ministers of Imperial Russia|Justice]];

* [[List of Ministers of National Enlightenment|National Enlightenment]].

===Most Holy Synod===

{{main|Most Holy Synod}}

The Most Holy Synod (established in [[1721]]) was the supreme organ of government of the Orthodox Church in Russia. It was presided over by a lay procurator, representing the emperor, and consists, for the rest, of the three metropolitans of [[metropolitan of Moscow|Moscow]], St Petersburg and Kiev, the archbishop of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and a number of bishops sitting in rotation.

===Senate===

{{main|Governing Senate}}

The Senate (Pravitelstvuyushchi Senat, i.e. directing or governing senate), originally established during the [[Government reform of Peter I]], consisted of members nominated by the emperor. Its functions, which were exceedingly various, were carried out by the different departments into which it is divided. It was the supreme court of cassation; an audit office, a high court of justice for all political offences; one of its departments fullfiled the functions of a heralds' college. It also had supreme jurisdiction in all disputes arising out of the administration of the empire, notably differences between the representatives of the central power and the elected organs of local self-government. Lastly, it examined into registers and promulgated new laws, a function which, in theory, gives it a power, akin to that of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], of rejecting measures not in accordance with the fundamental laws.

===Provincial administration===

For purposes of provincial administiation Russia was divided ([[1914|as of 1914]]) into 81 provinces (''[[guberniya]]s'') and 20 regions (''[[oblast]]s'') and 1 district ([[okrug]]). [[Vassals]] and [[protectorates]] of the Russian Empire included the [[Emirate of Bukhara]], the [[Khanate of Khiva]] and, after 1914, [[Tuva]] (Uriankhai). Of these 11 Governorates, 17 provinces and 1 district ([[Sakhalin]]) belonged to [[Asia]]tic Russia. Of the rest 8 Governorates were in Finland, 10 in Poland. European Russia thus embraced 59 governments and 1 province (that of the [[Don]]). The Don province was under the direct jurisdiction of the ministry of war; the rest have each a governor and deputy-governor, the latter presiding over the administrative council. In addition there were governors-general, generally placed over several governments and armed with more extensive powers usually including the command of the troops within the limits of their jurisdiction. In 1906 there were governors-general in Finland, Warsaw, [[Vilna]], Kiev, Moscow and Riga. The larger cities (St Petersburg, Moscow, [[Odessa]], [[Sevastopol]], [[Kerch]], [[Mykolaiv|Nikolayev]], [[Rostov-on-Don|Rostov]]) have an administrative system of their own, independent of the governments; in these the [[chief of police]] acts as governor.

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[[Categoria:Impero russo]]