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Griseilled (talk | contribs) I have added some "needed citations" to the wikipedia article that was formerly done. I hope they are correct! I have also some new information in most categories in this articles, I have also added their respective resources in citations. Some of them were a bit difficult to find, I hope it is correct. Please let me know if there is anything that needs to be changed, or you need to change yourself so that it can be more accurate and make sure its not plagiarized. |
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{{short description|Development of memory in children}}
The '''development of memory in children''' becomes evident within the first 3 years of a child's life as they show considerable advances in [[declarative memory]]. An important aspect to reckon throughout this article, is that the memory of a child ameliorates throughout their development.<ref name="Learning & memory">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49977789|title=Learning & memory|date=2003|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|others=Byrne, John H.|isbn=0-02-865619-9|edition=2nd ed|___location=New York|oclc=49977789}}</ref> As mentioned previously this enhancement continues into adolescence with major developments in [[short term memory]], [[working memory]], [[long term memory]] and [[autobiographical memory]].<ref name=bad>{{cite book|last=Siegler|first=R. S.|title=Children's Thinking|year=1998|publisher=Prentice Hall|___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|edition=3rd|authorlink=Robert S. Siegler|isbn=978-0-13-397910-7}}{{
Recent research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother’s own voice, as well as proposing the importance of a strong connection to the mother.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeCasper |first1=A. |last2=Fifer |first2=W. |title=Of human bonding: newborns prefer their mothers' voices |journal=Science |volume=208 |issue=4448 |pages=1174–6 |year=1980 |pmid=7375928 |doi=10.1126/science.7375928 |bibcode=1980Sci...208.1174D |citeseerx=10.1.1.553.1738 }}</ref>
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==Working Memory==
According to [[Baddeley's model of working memory]], working memory is composed of three parts. First is the central [[Executive (management)|executive]] which is responsible for a range of regulatory functions including attention, the control of action, and problem solving. Second, the [[phonological loop]], which is specialized for the manipulation and retention of material in particular informational domains. Finally, the visuospatial sketchpad stores material in terms of its visual or spatial features. The strength of the relationships between the three components of working memory vary; the central executive is strongly linked with both the phonological loop as well as the visuospatial sketchpad which are both independent of each other. Some evidence indicates linear increases in performance of working memory from age
===Central Executive===
Central executive is an important integral of the working memory, in where it has the all- inclusive attentional control of the working memory system.
===Phonological Loop===
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==Long Term Memory==
Long term memory, also known as episodic and semantic memory, has the ability to store valuable information for a proficient amount of time.<ref name="worldcat.org">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/941831058|title=The Gale encyclopedia of psychology|others=Longe, Jacqueline L.,|isbn=978-1-4103-1781-0|edition=Third edition|___location=Farmington Hills, MI|oclc=941831058}}</ref> According to Longe (2016) the storage of long-term memory could be in assortments of minutes to lifetime, meaning an activity or event attended can be recalled after a few minutes or be stored for a long time.<ref
Explicit memory becomes much better over the developmental years. However, there are small effects of age on implicit memory, which could be because implicit memory involves more basic processes than declarative memory which would make it less affected by a child's developing cognitive skills and abilities.
===Infants===
It has been recorded from numerous studies that infants with the early age of 2 to 3 months can in develop a memory from certain experiences.
The study also indicated that the infant could remember the connection for up to 14 days.
Infants who are 5 months or older are able to use emotions to influence their memories. However, at this age, infants will be more likely to remember things that were characterized by positive emotions. Numerous mechanisms that are used to study and infer memory in children cannot be used on infants, due to the process the study is retrieved, which include writing or speaking.
===Pre-school Children===
Infants at as early as 7-months-old can conceptually differentiate between categories such as animals and vehicles. Although infants’ concepts may be crude by adult standards, they still allow infants to make meaningful semantic distinctions. An example is that infants can differentiate between items belonging to a kitchen and those items belonging to a bathroom.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mandler |first1=Jean M. |last2=Fivush |first2=Robyn |last3=Reznick |first3=J. Steven |title=The development of contextual categories |journal=Cognitive Development |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=1987 |pages=339–54 |doi=10.1016/S0885-2014(87)80012-6 }}</ref> At the very least, these categories lay a foundation for early knowledge development, organizing information in storage and influence future encoding. Infants from 16 months old are able to draw on their semantic knowledge in [[generalization]] and [[inference]]. This knowledge can also be used by older toddlers, 24-month-olds, to facilitate acquisition and retention of new information. Their knowledge of causal ordering of events can be used to help to recall the sequence of events.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henry, Lucy.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/926809576|title=The development of working memory in children|date=2011|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84787-329-3|oclc=926809576}}</ref> Infants have the ability to recall experiences after some time or demonstrate that they have a forming cognitive process.
Pre-school children can be heavily inaccurate in recalling words or numbers they have just learned.
Knowledge itself will not alter retention performance, rather how well that knowledge is structured will alter performance. Better retention was shown with information that had greater cohesion and more elaborative elements. Familiarity and repetition of an experience can also influence the organization of information in storage for preschoolers and older children.<ref name="fivush" /> Children who experienced an event twice recalled the event better 3 months later than did children who only experienced it once and showed equally good recall at 3 months compared to recall at 2 weeks after experiences.<ref name="swrtc.nmsu.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://swrtc.nmsu.edu/cli-2/pastconferences/2017-2/agenda/childtraumatic/|title=Child Traumatic Memory and the Testimony of Children {{!}} Southwest Regional Training Center {{!}} New Mexico State University|language=en|access-date=2020-03-30}}</ref>
===School Age Children===
Age differences in memory are attributed to age-correlated growth in the foundation of knowledge. What children know affects what they encode, how that information is organized in storage, and the manner in which it’s retrieved. The greater the background knowledge about the to-be-encoded information, the better that the information is remembered.<ref name="fivush" /> Because older children have more knowledge than younger children, older children perform better than younger children in most memory tasks. When familiarity and meaningfulness of material were equated across age, developmental differences in memory performance was no longer a factor.<ref
Children’s use of memory strategies and the development of metamemory skills are also instrumental in age-related changes in memory, particularly later in childhood years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O’Sullivan |first1=Julia T. |last2=Howe |first2=Mark L. |title=A different view of metamemory with illustrations from children's beliefs about long-term retention |journal=European Journal of Psychology of Education |volume=13 |issue=1 |year=1998 |pages=9–28 |jstor=23420104 |doi=10.1007/BF03172810 }}</ref> Knowledge influences memory by affecting retrieval, by facilitating spread of activation among related items in memory and by facilitating the use of strategies. Knowledge also provides better elaboration of information which can strengthen its storage in memory.<ref
==Episodic Memory==
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By school age, the typical child shows skill in recalling details of past experiences and in organizing those details into a [[narrative]] form with [[:wikt:cohesion|cohesion]]. Memories formed at this age and beyond are more likely to stand the test of time over the years and be recalled in adulthood, compared to earlier memories. Young children can sometimes retain information from specific episodes over very long periods of time, but the particular information a child of a particular age is likely to retain over different periods of time is unpredictable. This depends on the nature of the memory event and individual differences in the child such as gender, parental style of communication, and language ability.<ref name="fivush">{{cite journal |last1=Fivush |first1=Robyn |last2=Gray |first2=Jacquelyn T. |last3=Fromhoff |first3=Fayne A. |title=Two-year-old talk about the past |journal=Cognitive Development |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=1987 |pages=393–409 |doi=10.1016/S0885-2014(87)80015-1 }}</ref>
One of the most important aspects of episodic memory according to Tulving (1985, 1999) is the element of the individual to cognitively travel to both the past and the future.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd">{{Cite book|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781118597705|title=The Wiley Handbook on the Development of Children's Memory: Bauer/The Wiley|date=2013-10-07|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd|isbn=978-1-118-59770-5|editor-last=Bauer|editor-first=Patricia J.|___location=Chichester, UK|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118597705|editor-last2=Fivush|editor-first2=Robyn}}</ref> A studied yet still speculative thought about episodic memory in children is the lack of foresight episodic.<ref
==Autobiographical Memory==
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===Childhood Amnesia===
Childhood amnesia is a phenomenon that ranges from the age of
[[Infantile amnesia]] is the tendency to have few autobiographical memories from below the age of 2-4. This can be attributed to lack of [[memory rehearsal]] as young children do not engage in rehearsal of remembered information. There are two theoretical explanations for why this may occur; although they take different approaches, they are not [[mutually exclusive]] of each other.<ref name="PsychBook">{{cite book|last=Robinson-Riegler; Robinson-Riegler|first=Bridget; Gregory|title=Cognitive Psychology: Applying the Science of the Mind|year=2012|publisher=Pearson Education Inc. as Allyn & Bacon|___location=75 Arlington Street, Suite 300, Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-205-17674-8|pages=272–276; 295–296; 339–346|edition=Third}}</ref> The development of a cognitive self is also thought by some to have an effect on encoding and storing early memories.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MB_PBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=The+development+of+a+cognitive+self+is+also+thought+by+some+to+have+an+effect+on+encoding+and+storing+early+memories&source=bl&ots=sSw1xhUFaY&sig=tGznp7eKE58c--jLd1Mo0FF6lG0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwit0Ij03u7LAhWCOSYKHfMUCdUQ6AEIKDAC#v=onepage&q=The%20development%20of%20a%20cognitive%20self%20is%20also%20thought%20by%20some%20to%20have%20an%20effect%20on%20encoding%20and%20storing%20early%20memories&f=false Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science, Cognitive Processes]{{full citation needed|date=August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loftus |first1=Elizabeth F. |title=Desperately seeking memories of the first few years of childhood: The reality of early memories |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=122 |issue=2 |year=1993 |pages=274–7 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.122.2.274 |pmid=8315402}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Usher |first1=JoNell A. |last2=Neisser |first2=Ulric |title=Childhood amnesia and the beginnings of memory for four early life events |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=122 |issue=2 |year=1993 |pages=155–65 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.122.2.155 |pmid=8315398}}</ref>
====Cognitive Self====
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At this age, children spontaneously use rehearsal to enhance short-term memory performance and retrieval strategies begin to be used spontaneously without the guidance of others.<ref name="paris" />
Elementary-age children have a significant improvement in their ability to retain information.
====Late Elementary School====
In late elementary school, children engage in self-directed use of organization and demonstrate the ability to impose a [[semantic]] structure on the to-be-remembered items to guide memory performance. For example, if a child is packing their bag for school they can go through each part of their day and think of each item that they need to pack.<ref name="paris" /> Children at this age understand the advantages of using memory strategies and make use of strategies like categorization over looking or naming if they are instructed to think about learning strategies prior to learning.<ref name="justice" />
A strong metacognitive strategy for a student would be practicing reflective and critical thinking.
====Early Adolescence====
In early adolescence, children begin to use elaborative rehearsal meaning that items are not simply kept in mind but rather are processed more deeply. They also prefer to use memory strategies such as [[categorization]] rather than simple rehearsal, looking or naming and use these strategies without needing to think about memory strategies prior to learning.<ref name="justice" />
Consequently, it is crucial to acknowledge that a child’s brain is constantly experiencing development from life adaptation.
==References==
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