Encoding (memory): Difference between revisions

Revision as of 02:34, 9 June 2020

Revision as of 04:09, 15 July 2020

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During the 1900s, further progress in memory research was made. [[Ivan Pavlov]] began research pertaining to [[classical conditioning]]. His research demonstrated the ability to create a semantic relationship between two unrelated items.

In 1932, Frederic Bartlett proposed the idea of mental [[Schema (psychology)|schema]]s. This model proposed that whether new information would be encoded was dependent on its consistency with prior knowledge (mental schemas).<ref name="bartlett32">Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</ref> This model also suggested that information not present at the time of encoding would be added to memory if it was based on schematic knowledge of the world.<ref name="bartlett32" /> In this way, encoding was found to be influenced by prior knowledge.

With the advance of [[Gestalt psychology|Gestalt theory]] came the realization that memory for encoded information was often perceived as different from the stimuli that triggered it. It was also influenced by the context that the stimuli were embedded in.

With advances in technology, the field of neuropsychology emerged and with it a biological basis for theories of encoding. In 1949, Donald [[Donald O. Hebb|Hebb]] looked at the neuroscience aspect of encoding and stated that "neurons that fire together wire together," implying that encoding occurred as connections between neurons were established through repeated use.

The 1950s and 60's saw a shift to the information processing approach to memory based on the invention of computers, followed by the initial suggestion that encoding was the process by which information is entered into memory. In 1956, [[George Armitage Miller]] wrote his paper on how short-term memory is limited to seven items, plus-or-minus two, called [[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two]]. This number was appended when studies done on [[Chunking (psychology)|chunking]] revealed that seven, plus or minus two could also refer to seven "packets of information".

In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch]] proposed their [[Baddeley's model of working memory|model of working memory]], which consists of the central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and phonological loop as a method of encoding. In 2000, Baddeley added the episodic buffer.<ref name="text" /> Simultaneously [[Endel Tulving]] (1983) proposed the idea of encoding specificity whereby context was again noted as an influence on encoding.

==Types==

There are two main approaches to coding information: the physiological approach, and the mental approach. The physiological approach looks at how a stimulus is represented by neurons firing in the brain, while the mental approach looks at how the stimulus is represented in the mind.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Parker|first=Amanda|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=PSB5AgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=physiological+and+mental+approaches+to+encoding+memory&ots=JzMJlD5v__&sig=g1bpuB5_zl3zKM6oQ8TVRjKO9pI#v=onepage&q=physiological&f=false|title=The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory: Encoding and Retrieval|last2=Bussey|first2=Timothy J.|last3=Wilding|first3=Edward L.|date=2005-08-18|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-135-43073-3|language=en}}</ref>

There are many types of encoding that are used intensively such as visual, elaborative, organizational, acoustic, and semantic. However, this is not an exclusively extensive list as other encoding are also used.

There are many types of mental encoding that are used intensively, such as visual, elaborative, organizational, acoustic, and semantic. However, this is not an exclusively extensive list as other encoding are also used.

===Visual Encoding===

Visual encoding is the process of encodingconverting images and visual sensory information to memory stored in the brain. This means that people can convert the new information that they stored into mental pictures (Harrison, C., Semin, A.,(2009). Psychology. New York p.&nbsp;222) Visual sensory information is temporarily stored within our [[iconic memory]]<ref name="text">Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M.W., & Anderson, M.C. (2009). Memory. London: Psychology Press. p. 27, 44-59</ref> and [[working memory]] before being encoded into permanent long-term storage.<ref name="sperling63">Sperling, G. (1963). A model for visual memory tasks. Human Factors, 5, 19-31.</ref><ref name="sperling67">Sperling, G. (1967). Successive approximations to a model for short term memory. Acta Psychologica, 27, 285-292.</ref> [[Baddeley's model of working memory]] statessuggests that visual information is stored in the visuo-spatial sketchpad.<ref name="text"/>

The visuo-spatial sketchpad is connected to the central executive, which is a key area of working memory. The [[amygdala]] is aanother complex structure that has an important role in visual encoding. It accepts visual input in addition to input, from other systems, and encodes the positive or negative values of conditioned stimuli.<ref name="Belova">Belova, M.A., Morrison, S.E., Paton, J.J., & Salzman, C.D. (2006). The primate amygdala represents the positive and negative value of visual stimuli during learning. Nature; 439(7078): 865-870.</ref>

===Elaborative Encoding===

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==Molecular Perspective==

The process of encoding is not yet well understood, however key advances have shed light on the nature of these mechanisms. Encoding begins with any novel situation, as the [[brain]] will interact and draw conclusions from the results of this interaction. These learning experiences have been known to trigger a cascade of molecular events leading to the formation of memories.<ref name="wagner">Wagner, M. (2008). The His452Tyr variant of the gene encoding the 5-HT(2a) receptor is specifically associated with consolidation of episodic memory in humans. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 11, 1163–1167.</ref> These changes include the modification of neural synapses, modification of [[proteins]], creation of new [[synapses]], activation of [[gene expression]] and new [[protein synthesis]]. One study found that high central nervous systems of acetylcholine during wakefulness aided in new memory encoding, while low levels of acetylcholine during slow-wave sleep aided in consolidation of memories.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rasch|first=Björn H.|last2=Born|first2=Jan|last3=Gais|first3=Steffen|date=2006-05-01|title=Combined Blockade of Cholinergic Receptors Shifts the Brain from Stimulus Encoding to Memory Consolidation|url=https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2006.18.5.793|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=18|issue=5|pages=793–802|doi=10.1162/jocn.2006.18.5.793|issn=0898-929X}}</ref> However, encoding can occur on different levels. The first step is [[short-term memory]] formation, followed by the conversion to a [[long-term memory]], and then a long-term memory consolidation process.<ref name="kandel">Kandel, E. (2004). The Molecular Biology of Memory Storage: A Dialog Between Genes and Synapses. Bioscience Reports, 24, 4-5.</ref>

===Synaptic Plasticity===

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==Depth of Processing==

Different levels of processing influence how well information is remembered. This idea was first introduced by Craik and Lockhart (1972). They claimed that the level of processing information was dependent upon the depth at which the information was being processed; mainly, shallow processing and deep processing. According to Craik and Lockhart, the encoding of sensory information would be considered shallow processing, as it is highly automatic and requires very little focus. Deeper level processing requires more attention being given to the stimulus and engages more cognitive systems to encode the information. An exception to deep processing is if the individual has been exposed to the stimulus frequently and it has become common in the individual’s life, such as the person’s name.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lockhart|first=Robert|date=1990|title=Levels of Processing: A Retrospective Commentary

Different levels of processing influence how well information is remembered. These levels of processing can be illustrated by maintenance and elaborate rehearsal.

on a Framework for Memory Research|url=http://www.psychologyib.com/uploads/1/1/7/5/11758934/_ib_psychology_-_craik_and_lockhart_1972.pdf|journal=Canadian Journal of Psychology|volume=44|pages=88|via=}}</ref> These levels of processing can be illustrated by maintenance and elaborate rehearsal.

===Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal===

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Organization is key to memory encoding. Researchers have discovered that our minds naturally organize information if the information received is not organized.<ref name=":3" /> One natural way information can be organized is through hierarchies.<ref name=":3" /> For example, the grouping mammals, reptiles, and amphibians is a hierarchy of the animal kingdom.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Schunk, Dale H.|title=Learning theories : an educational perspective|date=2012|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-13-707195-1|edition=6th|___location=Boston|oclc=688559444}}</ref>

[[Encoding (memory)#Depth of Processing|Depth of processing]] is also related to the organization of information. For example, the connections that are made between the to-be-remembered item, other to-be-remembered items, previous experiences, and context generate retrieval paths for the to-be-remembered item and can act as retrieval cues. These connections create organization on the to-be-remembered item, making it more memorable.<ref>Katona, G. (1940). Organizing and memorizing. New York, NY, US: Columbia University Press.</ref>

=== '''Visual Images''' ===

Another method used to enhance encoding is to associate images with words. Gordon Bower and David Winzenz (1970) demonstrated the use of imagery and encoding in their research while using paired-associate learning. Researchers gave participants a list of 15 word-pairs, showing each participant the word pair for 5 seconds for each pair. One group was told to create a mental image of the two words in each pair in which the two items were interacting. The other group was told to use maintenance rehearsal to remember the information. When participants were later tested and asked to recall the second word in each word pairing, researchers found that those who had created visual images of the items interacting remembered over twice as many of the word pairings than those who used maintenance rehearsal.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bower|first=Gordon|date=1970|title=Comparison of associative learning strategies|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03335632.pdf|journal=Psychon. Sci.|volume=20|pages=|via=}}</ref>  

===Mnemonics===

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===Chunking===

Chunking is a memory strategy used to maximize the amount of information memorizedstored byin combiningshort term memory in order to combine it into small, meaningful sections.  By organizing objects into meaningful sections, these sections are then remembered as a unit rather than separate objects. As larger sections are analyzed and connections are made, information is weaved into meaningful associations and combined into fewer, but larger and more significant pieces of information. By doing so, the ability to hold more information in short-term memory increases.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Goldstein, E. Bruce.|title=Cognitive Psychology : Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience.|date=2018|publisher=Cengage|isbn=978-1-337-67043-2|edition=5th|___location=Mason OH|oclc=1120695526}}</ref> To be more specific, the use of chunking would increase recall from 5 to 8 items to 20 items or more as associations are made between these items.<ref name=":6" />

Words are an example of chunking, where instead of simply perceiving letters we perceive and remember their meaningful wholes: words. The use of chunking increases the number of items we are able to remember by creating meaningful "packets" in which many related items are stored as one. The use of chunking is also seen in numbers. One of the most common forms of chunking seen on a daily basis is that of phone numbers. Generally speaking, phone numbers are separated into sections. An example of this would be 909 200 5890, in which numbers are grouped together to make up one whole. Grouping numbers in this manner, allows them to be recalled with more facility because of their comprehensible acquaintanceship.<ref>''Tulving, Endel; Craik, Fergus I. M. (2005-05-05). The Oxford Handbook of Memory. {{ISBN|9780190292867}}.''</ref>

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{{main|Salience (language)|Salience (neuroscience)}}

When an item or idea is considered "salient", it means the item or idea appears to noticeably stand out.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com|title=Definition of Salient|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-03-12}}</ref> When information is salient, it may be encoded in memory more efficiently than if the information did not stand out to the learner.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Krauel|first1=Kerstin|last2=Duzel|first2=Emrah|last3=Hinrichs|first3=Hermann|last4=Santel|first4=Stephanie|last5=Rellum|first5=Thomas|last6=Baving|first6=Lioba|date=2007-06-15|title=Impact of Emotional Salience on Episodic Memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study|journal=Biological Psychiatry|language=en|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1370–1379|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.051|pmid=17210138}}</ref> In reference to encoding, any event involving survival may be considered salient. Research has shown that survival may be related to the self-reference effect due to evolutionary mechanisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cunningham|first1=Sheila J.|last2=Brady-Van den Bos|first2=Mirjam|last3=Gill|first3=Lucy|last4=Turk|first4=David J.|date=2013-03-01|title=Survival of the selfish: Contrasting self-referential and survival-based encoding|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|language=en|volume=22|issue=1|pages=237–244|doi=10.1016/j.concog.2012.12.005|pmid=23357241|url=https://rke.abertay.ac.uk/en/publications/1a5cf356-4dda-40e1-b1f9-b1764e7971ab}}</ref> Researchers have discovered that even words that are high in survival value are encoded better than words that are ranked lower in survival value.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Nairne|first1=James S.|last2=Thompson|first2=Sarah R.|last3=Pandeirada|first3=Josefa N. S.|date=2007|title=Adaptive memory: Survival processing enhances retention.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=263–273|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.2.263|pmid=17352610|issn=1939-1285}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Weinstein|first1=Y.|last2=Bugg|first2=J. M.|last3=Roediger|first3=H. L.|date=2008-07-01|title=Can the survival recall advantage be explained by basic memory processes?|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=36|issue=5|pages=913–919|doi=10.3758/MC.36.5.913|pmid=18630198|issn=0090-502X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some research supports evolution, claiming that the human species remembers content associated with survival.<ref name=":4" /> Some researchers wanted to see for themselves whether or not the findings of other research was accurate.<ref name=":5" /> The researchers decided to replicate an experiment with results that supported the idea that survival content is encoded better than other content.<ref name=":5" /> The findings of the experiment further suggested that survival content has a higher advantage of being encoded than other content.<ref name=":5" />

=== '''Retrieval Practice''' ===

Studies have shown that an effective tool to increase encoding during the process of learning is to create and take practice tests. Using retrieval in order to enhance performance is called the testing effect, as it actively involves creating and recreating the material that one is intending to learn and increases one’s exposure to it. It is also a useful tool in connecting new information to information already stored in memory, as there is a close association between encoding and retrieval. Thus, creating practice tests allows the individual to process the information at a deeper level than simply reading over the material again or using a pre-made test.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Karpicke|first=Jeffrey D.|date=2012-06-01|title=Retrieval-Based Learning: Active Retrieval Promotes Meaningful Learning|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412443552|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|language=en|volume=21|issue=3|pages=157–163|doi=10.1177/0963721412443552|issn=0963-7214}}</ref> The benefits of using retrieval practice have been demonstrated in a study done where college students were asked to read a passage for seven minutes and were then given a two minute break, during which they completed math problems. One group of participants was given seven minutes to write down as much of the passage as they could remember while the other group was given another seven minutes to reread the material. Later all participants were given a recall test at various increments (five minutes, 2 days, and one week) after the initial learning had taken place. The results of these tests showed that those who had been assigned to the group that had been given a recall test during their first day of the experiment were more likely to retain more information than those that had simply reread the text. This demonstrates that retrieval practice is a useful tool in encoding information into long term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roediger|first=Henry L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=2006|title=Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x|journal=Psychological Science|language=en|volume=17|issue=3|pages=249–255|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x|issn=0956-7976|via=}}</ref>

==Computational Models of Memory Encoding==