Memory development: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 22:54, 25 June 2020

Revision as of 21:18, 18 July 2020

Line 1:

{{short description|Development of memory in children}}

The '''development of memory is a lifelong process that continues through adulthood. In this topic It is important to determine what development actually means. Development is often recognized as progression toward something, or as the increase in a particular ailment. In memory this would indicate the enhancement in memory in children, and then the decline as an individual gets older.  

The development of memory in children''' becomes evident within the first 3 years of a child's life as they show considerable advances in [[declarative memory]], a child's memory throughout their development.<ref name="Learning & memory">{{Cite book|title=Learning & memory|date=2003|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|others=Byrne, John H.|isbn=0-02-865619-9|edition=2nd|___location=New York|oclc=49977789}}</ref> This enhancement continues into adolescence with major developments in [[short term memory]], [[working memory]], [[long term memory]] and [[autobiographical memory]].<ref name="bad">{{cite book|last=Siegler|first=R. S.|title=Children's Thinking|year=1998|publisher=Prentice Hall|___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|edition=3rd|authorlink=Robert S. Siegler|isbn=978-0-13-397910-7}}{{page needed|date=August 2016}}</ref>

The development of memory in adults, especially older adults, is often seen more negatively, as with age so does the deterioration of mental functions. Most Adults will face symptoms of memory loss in both their short- and long-term memory, Alzheimer’s is a prime example of this. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jørgensen|first=Isabella Friis|last2=Aguayo‐Orozco|first2=Alejandro|last3=Lademann|first3=Mette|last4=Brunak|first4=Søren|date=2020-04-27|title=Age‐stratified longitudinal study of Alzheimer's and vascular dementia patients|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/alz.12091|journal=Alzheimer's & Dementia|volume=16|issue=6|pages=908–917|doi=10.1002/alz.12091|issn=1552-5260}}</ref>

Recent research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother’s own voice, resulting the significance of a strong and powerful connection to the mother.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeCasper |first1=A. |last2=Fifer |first2=W. |title=Of human bonding: newborns prefer their mothers' voices |journal=Science |volume=208 |issue=4448 |pages=1174–6 |year=1980 |pmid=7375928 |doi=10.1126/science.7375928 |bibcode=1980Sci...208.1174D |citeseerx=10.1.1.553.1738 }}</ref>

Line 22 ⟶ 26:

===Visuospatial Sketchpad===

Younger children (under the age of 5) may be more dependent than older children or adults on using the visuospatial sketchpad to support immediate memory for visual material. Older children adopt a strategy of verbally recoding pictures where possible and also use the phonological loop to mediate performance of the “visual” memory task. Between the ages of 5 and 11, visual [[memory span]] increases substantially and it is at this point when adult levels of performance are reached.<ref name="gather" /><ref name="DOI 10.1075/ce.4.2.02jos"/><ref name=pmid17654279/>

=== '''Episodic Buffer''' ===

The episodic buffer is something that has recently been added to Baddeley’ s working model in memory, being added in the year 2000. It is believed to act as a connector of various sources within the memory process. While this is a new theory being developed, the overall effects are still be researched.

Baddeley in his initial paper describing the Episodic Buffer, “The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?”, details what he believes to be the biological functioning, ___location, and purpose of the episodic buffer.

The purpose of the episodic buffer is to serve as a bridge between both Working memory and Long-Term-Memory, specifically the Episodic Memory. It is believed to be more temporary in its storage capabilities, but none the less helps form new information and lasting memory.

Since it combines several elements of memory, one could in theory say it is everywhere.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baddeley|first=Alan|date=2000-11|title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1364661300015382|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|language=en|volume=4|issue=11|pages=417–423|doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2}}</ref>. In FMRI, tests it was discovered the right prefrontal cortex shows increased activity could be a plausible ___location. The study was conducted by Prabharkan et al.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Prabhakaran|first=V.|last2=Narayanan|first2=K.|last3=Zhao|first3=Z.|last4=Gabrieli|first4=J. D. E.|date=2000-01|title=Integration of diverse information in working memory within the frontal lobe|url=http://www.nature.com/articles/nn0100_85|journal=Nature Neuroscience|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=85–90|doi=10.1038/71156|issn=1097-6256}}</ref>, they discovered that in their test involving verbal and spatial information, they saw several regions of the brain begin to activate. The right prefrontal cortex was then seen to have increased processing in verbal and spatial memory activation. Only time will tell if this is the exact ___location of the Episodic Buffer process or not.

Baddeley discusses that there are some possible issues since it is a new concept of memory, the limits of its abilities in storage have yet to be determined. Other issues include identifying the differences between the Episodic Buffer and Episodic Memory, as well as showing how important and essential the Episodic Buffer is to the Working Model of Memory.

==Long Term Memory==

Line 46 ⟶ 61:

Children’s use of memory strategies and the development of metamemory skills are also instrumental in age-related changes in memory, particularly later in childhood years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O’Sullivan |first1=Julia T. |last2=Howe |first2=Mark L. |title=A different view of metamemory with illustrations from children's beliefs about long-term retention |journal=European Journal of Psychology of Education |volume=13 |issue=1 |year=1998 |pages=9–28 |jstor=23420104 |doi=10.1007/BF03172810 }}</ref> Knowledge influences memory by affecting retrieval, by facilitating spread of activation among related items in memory and by facilitating the use of strategies. Knowledge also provides better elaboration of information which can strengthen its storage in memory.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/>

=== Adults ===

Memory tends to begin to fade as when enter and go through adulthood. Ane-Victoria Idland et al.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Idland|first=Ane-Victoria|last2=Sala-Llonch|first2=Roser|last3=Watne|first3=Leiv Otto|last4=Brækhus|first4=Anne|last5=Hansson|first5=Oskar|last6=Blennow|first6=Kaj|last7=Zetterberg|first7=Henrik|last8=Sørensen|first8=Øystein|last9=Walhovd|first9=Kristine Beate|last10=Wyller|first10=Torgeir Bruun|last11=Fjell|first11=Anders Martin|date=2020-09|title=Biomarker profiling beyond amyloid and tau: cerebrospinal fluid markers, hippocampal atrophy, and memory change in cognitively unimpaired older adults|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0197458020301214|journal=Neurobiology of Aging|language=en|volume=93|pages=1–15|doi=10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.04.002}}</ref>, investigated the biological factors that begin to form in a person’s older life and examined biological markers that could help explain the decrease in memory. These markers included “beta amyloid 1–42 (Aβ42), phosphorylated tau (P-tau), total tau, chitinase-3-like protein 1 (YKL-40), fatty acid binding protein 3 (FABP3), and neurofilament light (NFL).”<ref name=":0" />, were the primary focus of the study. Their findings conclude that certain individuals with certain markers are more likely to suffer from memory problems.

Time is also believed to be a factor in the eventual decline of memory within adults. With increased years certain degradation of brain functions and areas begin to take its toll. The hippocampus appears to begin to lose its ability to make connections to life events and memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dahan|first=Lionel|last2=Rampon|first2=Claire|last3=Florian|first3=Cédrick|date=2020-08|title=Age-related memory decline, dysfunction of the hippocampus and therapeutic opportunities|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0278584620302591|journal=Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry|language=en|volume=102|pages=109943|doi=10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.109943}}</ref>

==Episodic Memory==

Line 54 ⟶ 74:

One of the most important aspects of episodic memory according to Tulving (1985, 1999) is the element of the individual to cognitively travel to both the past and the future.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd">{{Cite book|title=The Wiley Handbook on the Development of Children's Memory: Bauer/The Wiley|date=2013-10-07|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd|isbn=978-1-118-59770-5|editor-last=Bauer|editor-first=Patricia J.|___location=Chichester, UK|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118597705|editor-last2=Fivush|editor-first2=Robyn}}</ref> A studied yet still speculative thought about episodic memory in children is the lack of and anticipated episodic.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd"/> This suggests that children are more susceptible and successful in remembering certain events (eg., what are you going to have for lunch, what will you play with in the park, etc.), not because they traveled in both past and future, but that parents are the ones’ who generally organize the day, meaning they are the ones who have control over their childrens futures.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd"/>

As with all forms of memory, Episodic Memory is known to also decline with age. However, it can also be said that biological factors such as one’s sex also effects how Episodic memory develops and degrades. In a study done by Lundervold et al.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lundervold|first=Astri J.|last2=Wollschläger|first2=Daniel|last3=Wehling|first3=Eike|date=2014-06|title=Age and sex related changes in episodic memory function in middle aged and older adults|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/sjop.12114|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Psychology|language=en|volume=55|issue=3|pages=225–232|doi=10.1111/sjop.12114|pmc=PMC4314696|pmid=24601911}}</ref>, they decided to investigate the possible reasons behind this. Their findings through several longitudinal and cross-sectional studies found that as mentioned that Episodic memory does decrease with age. In regards to sex they found that women tend to have a slightly lower decrease rate of Episodic Memory than men, -.12 compared to -.14 units. They study however didn’t go into other variables such as social-economical-status in regards to how this might affect the decrease rates in age and sex.

==Autobiographical Memory==

Line 59 ⟶ 81:

Difficulty in assessing memory in young children can be attributed to their level of language skills; this is because memory tests usually occur in the form of a verbal report. It is unclear whether performance on memory assessments is due to poor memory for the event or to the inability to express what they remember in words. However, memory tests assessing performance with a nonverbal photograph recognition test and behavioral re-enactment showed that children had signs of recall from 27 months, as opposed to 33 months using verbal recall testing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Simcock|first1=Gabrielle|last2=Hayne|first2=Harlene|year=2003|title=Age-related changes in verbal and nonverbal memory during early childhood|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=39|issue=5|pages=805–14|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.805|pmid=12952395}}</ref>

Autobiographical memory can also develop depending on the emotional state of both children and adults. Autobiographical memory is the collection of memories comprising of the life events of the individual, so the idea that emotions can impact how our memories are remembered would seem to be a viable idea. In a study by Rollins et al.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rollins|first=Leslie|last2=Gibbons|first2=Jeffrey A.|last3=Cloude|first3=Elizabeth B.|date=2018-07|title=Affective change greater for unpleasant than pleasant events in autobiographical memory of children and adults: A retrospective study|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0885201417300606|journal=Cognitive Development|language=en|volume=47|pages=46–52|doi=10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.03.002}}</ref>, they investigated this possibility. There findings showed that particularly bad experiences where tend to degrade, forgotten, or showed difficulties remembering than positive memories.This could be in part due to that the mind sees such negative memories as harmful, and thus tries it’s best to remove something that could be permanently damaging.   

===Childhood Amnesia===