Introduction to superheavy elements: Difference between revisions

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{{external media|width=230px|float=left|video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YovAFlzFtzg Visualization] of unsuccessful nuclear fusion, based on calculations by the [[Australian National University]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wakhle|first=A.|last2=Simenel|first2=C.|last3=Hinde|first3=D. J.|displayauthors=3|last4=Dasgupta|first4=M.|last5=Evers|first5=M.|last6=Luong|first6=D. H.|last7=du Rietz|first7=R.|date=2015|editor-last=Simenel|editor-first=C.|editor2-last=Gomes|editor2-first=P. R. S.|editor3-last=Hinde|editor3-first=D. J.|displayeditors=3|editor4-last=Madhavan|editor4-first=N.|editor5-last=Navin|editor5-first=A.|editor6-last=Rehm|editor6-first=K. E.|title=Comparing Experimental and Theoretical Quasifission Mass Angle Distributions|journal=[[European Physical Journal WOC|European Physical Journal Web of Conferences]]|volume=86|pages=00061|doi=10.1051/epjconf/20158600061|bibcode=2015EPJWC..8600061W|issn=2100-014X|doi-access=free}}</ref>}}

A superheavy{{efn|In [[nuclear physics]], an element is called [[heavy element|heavy]] if its atomic number is high; [[lead]] (element&nbsp;82) is one example of such a heavy element. The term "superheavy elements" typically refers to elements with atomic number greater than [[lawrencium|103]] (although there are other definitions, such as atomic number greater than 100<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/explainer-superheavy-elements/1010345.article|title=Explainer: superheavy elements|last=Krämer|first=K.|date=2016|website=[[Chemistry World]]|language=en|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref> or 112;<ref>{{Cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911081623/https://pls.llnl.gov/research-and-development/nuclear-science/project-highlights/livermorium/elements-113-and-115|url=https://pls.llnl.gov/research-and-development/nuclear-science/project-highlights/livermorium/elements-113-and-115|title=Discovery of Elements 113 and 115|publisher=[[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]|archive-date=2015-09-11|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref> sometimes, the term is presented an equivalent to the term "transactinide", which puts an upper limit before the beginning of the hypothetical [[superactinide]] series).<ref>{{cite bookencyclopedia|last=Eliav|first=E.|title=Electronic Structure of the Transactinide Atoms|date=2018|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Inorganic and Bioinorganic Chemistry|pages=1–16|editor-last=Scott|editor-first=R. A.|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781119951438.eibc2632|isbn=978-1-119-95143-8|last2=Kaldor|first2=U.|last3=Borschevsky|first3=A.}}</ref> Terms "heavy isotopes" (of a given element) and "heavy nuclei" mean what could be understood in the common language—isotopes of high mass (for the given element) and nuclei of high mass, respectively.}} [[atomic nucleus]] is created in a nuclear reaction that combines two other nuclei of unequal size{{Efn|In 2009, a team at JINR led by Oganessian published results of their attempt to create hassium in a symmetric ¹³⁶Xe&nbsp;+&nbsp;¹³⁶Xe reaction. They failed to observe a single atom in such a reaction, putting the upper limit on the cross section, the measure of probability of a nuclear reaction, as 2.5&nbsp;[[picobarn|pb]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oganessian|first=Yu. Ts.|authorlink=Yuri Oganessian|last2=Dmitriev|first2=S. N.|last3=Yeremin|first3=A. V.|last4=Aksenov|first4=N. V.|last5=Bozhikov|first5=G. A.|last6=Chepigin|first6=V. I.|last7=Chelnokov|first7=M. L.|last8=Lebedev|first8=V. Ya.|last9=Malyshev|first9=O. N.|last10=Petrushkin|first10=O. V.|last11=Shishkin|first11=S. V.|displayauthors=3|date=2009|title=Attempt to produce the isotopes of element 108 in the fusion reaction ¹³⁶Xe + ¹³⁶Xe |journal=[[Physical Review C]]|language=en|volume=79|issue=2|pages=024608|doi=10.1103/PhysRevC.79.024608|issn=0556-2813}}</ref> In comparison, the reaction that resulted in hassium discovery, ²⁰⁸Pb + ⁵⁸Fe, had a cross section of ~20&nbsp;pb (more specifically, 19{{su|p=+19|b=−11}}&nbsp;pb), as estimated by the discoverers.<ref name="84Mu01">{{cite journal|last1=Münzenberg|first1=G.|author-link=Gottfried Münzenberg|last2=Armbruster|first2=P.|author-link2=Peter Armbruster|last3=Folger|first3=H.|last4=Heßberger|first4=F. P.|last5=Hofmann|first5=S.|last6=Keller|first6=J.|last7=Poppensieker|first7=K.|last8=Reisdorf|first8=W.|last9=Schmidt|first9=K.-H.|display-authors=3|date=1984|title=The identification of element 108|url=http://www.gsi-heavy-ion-researchcenter.org/forschung/kp/kp2/ship/108-discovery.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Zeitschrift für Physik A|volume=317|issue=2|pages=235–236|bibcode=1984ZPhyA.317..235M|doi=10.1007/BF01421260|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607124040/http://www.gsi-heavy-ion-researchcenter.org/forschung/kp/kp2/ship/108-discovery.pdf|archivedate=7 June 2015|accessdate=20 October 2012|first10=H.-J.|last10=Schött|first11=M. E.|last11=Leino|first12=R.|last12=Hingmann}}</ref>}} into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of mass, the greater the possibility that the two react.<ref name="Bloomberg">{{Cite web|last=Subramanian|first=S.|authorlink=Samanth Subramanian|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-08-28/making-new-elements-doesn-t-pay-just-ask-this-berkeley-scientist|title=Making New Elements Doesn't Pay. Just Ask This Berkeley Scientist|website=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]|access-date=2020-01-18}}</ref> The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the [[Particle beam|beam]] of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only [[nuclear fusion|fuse]] into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to [[Coulomb's law|electrostatic repulsion]]. The [[strong interaction]] can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly [[particle accelerator|accelerated]] in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus.<ref name="n+1">{{Cite web|url=https://nplus1.ru/material/2019/03/25/120-element|title=Сверхтяжелые шаги в неизвестное|last=Ivanov|first=D.|date=2019|website=nplus1.ru|language=ru|trans-title=Superheavy steps into the unknown|url-status=live|access-date=2020-02-02}}</ref> Coming close alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for approximately 10⁻²⁰&nbsp;seconds and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus.<ref name="n+1" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/something-new-and-superheavy-at-the-periodic-table-26286|title=Something new and superheavy at the periodic table|last=Hinde|first=D.|date=2017|website=[[The Conversation]]|language=en|access-date=2020-01-30}}</ref> If fusion does occur, the temporary merger—termed a [[compound nucleus]]—is an [[excited state]]. To lose its excitation energy and reach a more stable state, a compound nucleus either [[Nuclear fission|fissions]] or [[Spallation#Nuclear spallation|ejects]] one or several [[neutron]]s,{{Efn|The greater the excitation energy, the more neutrons are ejected. If the excitation energy is lower than energy binding each neutron to the rest of the nucleus, neutrons are not emitted; instead, the compound nucleus de-excites by emitting a [[gamma ray]].<ref name=CzechNuclear/>}} which carry away the energy. This occurs in approximately 10⁻¹⁶&nbsp;seconds after the initial collision.<ref name="CzechNuclear">{{cite web|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ba08/30dcab221b45ca5bcc3cfa8ae82558d624e7.pdf|title=Neutron Sources for ADS|last=Krása|first=A.|date=2010|work=Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering|publisher=[[Czech Technical University in Prague]]|pages=4–8|url-status=live|accessdate=October 20, 2019}}</ref>{{efn|The definition by the [[IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party]] states that a [[chemical element]] can only be recognized as discovered if a nucleus of it has not [[Radioactive decay|decayed]] within 10⁻¹⁴ seconds. This value was chosen as an estimate of how long it takes a nucleus to acquire its outer [[electron]]s and thus display its chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wapstra|first=A. H.|authorlink=Aaldert Wapstra|date=1991|title=Criteria that must be satisfied for the discovery of a new chemical element to be recognized|url=http://publications.iupac.org/pac/pdf/1991/pdf/6306x0879.pdf|journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry]]|volume=63|issue=6|page=883|doi=10.1351/pac199163060879|issn=1365-3075}}</ref> This figure also marks the generally accepted upper limit for lifetime of a compound nucleus.<ref name=BerkeleyNoSF/>}}

The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam.<ref name="SHEhowvideo">{{Cite web|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-make-superheavy-elements-and-finish-the-periodic-table-video/|title=How to Make Superheavy Elements and Finish the Periodic Table [Video]|author=Chemistry World|date=2016|website=[[Scientific American]]|language=en|url-status=live|access-date=2020-01-27}}</ref> In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products){{Efn|This separation is based on that the resulting nuclei move past the target more slowly then the unreacted beam nuclei. The separator contains electric and magnetic fields whose effects on a moving particle cancel out for a specific velocity of a particle.{{sfn|Hoffman|2000|p=334}} Such separation can also be aided by a [[Time-of-flight mass spectrometry|time-of-flight measurement]] and a recoil energy measurement; a combination of the two may allow to estimate the mass of a nucleus.{{sfn|Hoffman|2000|p=335}}}} and transferred to a [[Semiconductor detector|surface-barrier detector]], which stops the nucleus. The exact ___location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival.<ref name="SHEhowvideo" /> The transfer takes about 10⁻⁶&nbsp;seconds; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long.{{sfn|Zagrebaev|2013|page=3}} The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the ___location, the [[Decay energy|energy]], and the time of the decay are measured.<ref name="SHEhowvideo" />