Content deleted Content added
m →Autobiographical Memory: Revised a student's contributions |
Citation bot (talk | contribs) Alter: url. Add: s2cid, pmc, pmid, author pars. 1-1. Removed URL that duplicated unique identifier. Removed parameters. Some additions/deletions were actually parameter name changes. | You can use this bot yourself. Report bugs here. | Suggested by AManWithNoPlan | All pages linked from cached copy of User:AManWithNoPlan/sandbox2 | via #UCB_webform_linked |
||
Line 4:
The development of memory in children becomes evident within the first 3 years of a child's life as they show considerable advances in [[declarative memory]], a child's memory throughout their development.<ref name="Learning & memory">{{Cite book|title=Learning & memory|date=2003|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA|others=Byrne, John H.|isbn=0-02-865619-9|edition=2nd|___location=New York|oclc=49977789}}</ref> This enhancement continues into adolescence with major developments in [[short term memory]], [[working memory]], [[long term memory]] and [[autobiographical memory]].<ref name="bad">{{cite book|last=Siegler|first=R. S.|title=Children's Thinking|year=1998|publisher=Prentice Hall|___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|edition=3rd|authorlink=Robert S. Siegler|isbn=978-0-13-397910-7}}{{page needed|date=August 2016}}</ref>
The development of memory in adults, especially older adults, is often seen more negatively. Most Adults will face symptoms of memory loss in both their short- and long-term memory, Alzheimer’s is a prime example of this.<ref>{{Cite journal|
Recent research on the development of memory has indicated that declarative, or explicit memory, may exist in infants who are even younger than two years old. For example, newborns who are less than 3 days old demonstrate a preference for their mother’s own voice, resulting the significance of a strong and powerful connection to the mother.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeCasper |first1=A. |last2=Fifer |first2=W. |title=Of human bonding: newborns prefer their mothers' voices |journal=Science |volume=208 |issue=4448 |pages=1174–6 |year=1980 |pmid=7375928 |doi=10.1126/science.7375928 |bibcode=1980Sci...208.1174D |citeseerx=10.1.1.553.1738 }}</ref>
Line 16:
==Working Memory==
According to [[Baddeley's model of working memory]], working memory is composed of three parts. First is the central [[Executive (management)|executive]] which is responsible for a range of regulatory functions including attention, the control of action, and problem solving. Second, the [[phonological loop]], which is specialized for the manipulation and retention of material in particular informational domains. Finally, the visuospatial sketchpad stores material in terms of its visual or spatial features. The strength of the relationships between the three components of working memory vary; the central executive is strongly linked with both the phonological loop as well as the visuospatial sketchpad which are both independent of each other. Some evidence indicates linear increases in performance of working memory from age 3–4 years through to adolescence.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baddeley |first1=A. D. |last2=Hitch |first2=G. |year=1974 |chapter=Working memory |editor1-first=G. |editor1-last=Bower |title=The psychology of learning and motivation |volume=8 |pages=47–90 |___location=New York |publisher=Academic Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MB_PBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=The+development+of+a+cognitive+self+is+also+thought+by+some+to+have+an+effect+on+encoding+and+storing+early+memories#v=onepage
===Central Executive===
Central executive is an integral of the working memory, and involves the all- inclusive attentional control of the working memory system.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> Initially Kail and Saweikis inferred that the central executive had an important role of storing some information and that the central executive reinforced long-term memory and has the potential to designate resources for focusing, dividing and switching attention.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> Currently the model of the central executive excludes the possibility of any type of memory storage.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> However, it does include the understanding that it does have a responsibility for the control and reinforcement of attention.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Baddeley, Alan D., 1934-|title=The psychology of memory|date=1976|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0-465-06736-0|oclc=2118601}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Baddeley|first=Alan|title=Working Memory, Thought, and Action|chapter=What limits working memory span?|date=2007-03-15|pages=189–210|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528012.003.0011|isbn=978-0-19-852801-2}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Baddeley|first=Alan|date=November 2000|title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=4|issue=11|pages=417–423|doi=10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2|pmid=11058819|s2cid=14333234|issn=1364-6613}}</ref><ref name="Learning & memory"/> In children from 2-4, the memory storage capacity limitation constrains complex comprehension processes. As the child grows older however, less processing is necessary which opens more storage space for memory.<ref name="gather">{{cite journal |last1=Gathercole |first1=Susan E. |title=The Development of Memory |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=3–27 |year=1998 |pmid=9534084 |doi=10.1111/1469-7610.00301 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eacott |first1=M. J. |last2=Crawley |first2=R. A. |title=The offset of childhood amnesia: Memory for events that occurred before age 3 |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=127 |issue=1 |year=1998 |pages=22–33 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.127.1.22 |pmid=9503650}}</ref><ref name=pmid17654279>{{cite journal |last1=Jack |first1=Fiona |last2=Hayne |first2=Harlene |title=Eliciting adults' earliest memories: Does it matter how we ask the question? |journal=Memory |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=647–63 |year=2007 |pmid=17654279 |doi=10.1080/09658210701467087 |s2cid=5775522 }}</ref>
===Phonological Loop===
Line 30:
The episodic buffer is something that was added to Baddeley’ s working model in memory in the year 2000<ref name=":1" />. It is believed to act as a connector of various sources within the memory process. The episodic buffer is a developing concept that is being researched and refined.
In his initial paper, Baddeley detailed what he believes to be the biological functioning, ___location, and purpose of the episodic buffer.<ref name=":1" /> The purpose of the episodic buffer is to serve as a bridge between both Working memory and Long-Term-Memory, specifically Episodic Memory. It is believed to be more temporary in its storage capabilities, but none the less helps form new information and lasting memory. Since it combines several elements of memory, one could in theory say it is a distributed system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baddeley|first=Alan|date=November 2000|title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?
==Long Term Memory==
Long term memory, also known as episodic and semantic memory, has the ability to store valuable information for a proficient amount of time.<ref name="worldcat.org">{{Cite book|title=The Gale encyclopedia of psychology|others=Longe, Jacqueline L.|year = 2016|isbn=978-1-4103-1781-0|edition=Third|___location=Farmington Hills, MI|oclc=941831058}}</ref> According to Longe (2016) the storage of long-term memory could be in assortments of minutes to lifetime, meaning an activity or event attended can be recalled after a few minutes or be stored for a long time.<ref name="worldcat.org"/> Long term memory uses an important distinguishing factor known as meaning that can help an individual learn; It is used in a form of encoding and it is deemed the primary method of developing long-term memory.<ref name="worldcat.org"/> Once meaning is understood and applied to information it can impact what one recalls.<ref name="worldcat.org"/>
Explicit memory becomes much better over the developmental years. However, there are small effects of age on implicit memory, which could be because implicit memory involves more basic processes than declarative memory which would make it less affected by a child's developing cognitive skills and abilities.<ref>{{Cite journal|
===Infants===
Line 42:
The study also indicated that the infant could remember the connection for up to 14 days.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> However, once certain time has passed the infant’s leg is once again connected to the mobile’s movement with a ribbon to test of the infant recalled what to do.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> The infant did not remember what to do, and they were introduced to a certain factor that would aid the infant to remember.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> According to Robert & Saweikis (2004), If the experimenter moves the mobile showing the infant the movements, as soon as the infant is reconnected to the mobile with a ribbon, the infant will start kicking energetically.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> The conclusion was that the infant could indeed remember a memory, although time has passed.<ref name="Learning & memory"/>
Infants who are 5 months or older are able to use emotions to influence their memories. However, at this age, infants will be more likely to remember things that were characterized by positive emotions. Numerous mechanisms that are used to study and infer memory in children cannot be used on infants, due to the process the study is retrieved, which include writing or speaking.<ref name="Learning & memory"/> The way that researchers study the memory capabilities of infants in this age range is through measuring eye movements between test images presented. After doing this initial round of testing, the researchers would conduct follow-up tests both 5 minutes later and one day later. The follow-up tests shown to the infants included two geometric shapes: one from the original test, and a new shape. The researchers were able to record how long the infants looked at the images in the follow-up tests and measured how long the infants stared at each shape. The infants were more likely to gaze at the geometric shapes from the original tests if they had been paired with positive voices than if they had been paired with neutral or negative voices. This study indicated that infants at this age would be able to better remember shapes and patterns of things if they were associated with positive emotions because positivity would increase the infants' interest and attention.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flom |first1=Ross |last2=Janis |first2=Rebecca B. |last3=Garcia |first3=Darren J. |last4=Kirwan |first4=C. Brock |title=The effects of exposure to dynamic expressions of affect on 5-month-olds' memory |journal=Infant Behavior and Development |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=752–9 |year=2014 |pmid=25459793 |doi=10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.09.006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|
===Pre-school Children===
Infants at as early as 7-months-old can conceptually differentiate between categories such as animals and vehicles. Although infants’ concepts may be crude by adult standards, they still allow infants to make meaningful semantic distinctions. An example is that infants can differentiate between items belonging to a kitchen and those items belonging to a bathroom.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mandler |first1=Jean M. |last2=Fivush |first2=Robyn |last3=Reznick |first3=J. Steven |title=The development of contextual categories |journal=Cognitive Development |volume=2 |issue=4 |year=1987 |pages=339–54 |doi=10.1016/S0885-2014(87)80012-6 }}</ref> At the very least, these categories lay a foundation for early knowledge development, organizing information in storage and influence future encoding. Infants from 16 months old are able to draw on their semantic knowledge in [[generalization]] and [[inference]]. This knowledge can also be used by older toddlers, 24-month-olds, to facilitate acquisition and retention of new information. Their knowledge of causal ordering of events can be used to help to recall the sequence of events.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henry, Lucy.|title=The development of working memory in children|date=2011|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-84787-329-3|oclc=926809576}}</ref> Infants have the ability to recall experiences after some time or demonstrate that they have a forming cognitive process.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012">{{Cite book|last=Henry, Lucy.|title=The development of working memory in children|date=2012|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4462-5419-6|___location=Los Angeles|oclc=797817779}}</ref><ref name="Flavell 324–340">{{Cite journal|
Pre-school children can be heavily inaccurate in recalling words or numbers they have just learned.<ref name="Flavell 324–340"/><ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/> Children are more able to recall information, which according to Henry (2011) children can “predict” memory performance if they have an online experience with a task.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/> What led to this conclusion was the children were given a tape recorder with 10 words, the kids were asked to stop the tape recorder once they thought they could remember all the words mentioned.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/> According to the study 17% children predicted that they knew all 10 words mentioned.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/>
Line 54:
Age differences in memory are attributed to age-correlated growth in the foundation of knowledge. What children know affects what they encode, how that information is organized in storage, and the manner in which it’s retrieved. The greater the background knowledge about the to-be-encoded information, the better that the information is remembered.<ref name="fivush" /> Because older children have more knowledge than younger children, older children perform better than younger children in most memory tasks. When familiarity and meaningfulness of material were equated across age, developmental differences in memory performance was no longer a factor.<ref name="swrtc.nmsu.edu"/>
Children’s use of memory strategies and the development of metamemory skills are also instrumental in age-related changes in memory, particularly later in childhood years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O’Sullivan |first1=Julia T. |last2=Howe |first2=Mark L. |title=A different view of metamemory with illustrations from children's beliefs about long-term retention |journal=European Journal of Psychology of Education |volume=13 |issue=1 |year=1998 |pages=9–28 |jstor=23420104 |doi=10.1007/BF03172810 |s2cid=143496921 }}</ref> Knowledge influences memory by affecting retrieval, by facilitating spread of activation among related items in memory and by facilitating the use of strategies. Knowledge also provides better elaboration of information which can strengthen its storage in memory.<ref name="Henry, Lucy. 2012"/>
=== Adults ===
Memory tends to begin to fade as when enter and go through adulthood. Ane-Victoria Idland et al.,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|
==Episodic Memory==
Line 67:
One of the most important aspects of episodic memory according to Tulving (1985, 1999) is the element of the individual to cognitively travel to both the past and the future.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd">{{Cite book|title=The Wiley Handbook on the Development of Children's Memory: Bauer/The Wiley|date=2013-10-07|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Ltd|isbn=978-1-118-59770-5|editor-last=Bauer|editor-first=Patricia J.|___location=Chichester, UK|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118597705|editor-last2=Fivush|editor-first2=Robyn}}</ref> A studied yet still speculative thought about episodic memory in children is the lack of and anticipated episodic.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd"/> This suggests that children are more susceptible and successful in remembering certain events (eg., what are you going to have for lunch, what will you play with in the park, etc.), not because they traveled in both past and future, but that parents are the ones’ who generally organize the day, meaning they are the ones who have control over their childrens futures.<ref name="John Wiley & Sons Ltd"/>
As with all forms of memory, Episodic Memory is known to also decline with age. However, it can also be said that biological factors such as one’s sex also effects how Episodic memory develops and degrades. In a study done by Lundervold et al.,<ref>{{Cite journal|
==Autobiographical Memory==
Line 74:
Difficulty in assessing memory in young children can be attributed to their level of language skills; this is because memory tests usually occur in the form of a verbal report. It is unclear whether performance on memory assessments is due to poor memory for the event or to the inability to express what they remember in words. However, memory tests assessing performance with a nonverbal photograph recognition test and behavioral re-enactment showed that children had signs of recall from 27 months, as opposed to 33 months using verbal recall testing.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Simcock|first1=Gabrielle|last2=Hayne|first2=Harlene|year=2003|title=Age-related changes in verbal and nonverbal memory during early childhood|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=39|issue=5|pages=805–14|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.39.5.805|pmid=12952395}}</ref>
Autobiographical memory development is related to the emotional state of both children and adults. Rollins et al., <ref>{{Cite journal|
===Childhood Amnesia===
Line 85:
====Social Cultural Influences====
[[Language]] and [[culture]] play central roles in the early development of autobiographical memory. The manner in which parents discuss the past with their children and how elaborative they are in reminiscing affects how the child encodes the memory. Children whose parents talk in detail about the past are being provided with good opportunities to rehearse their memories. The parents’ use of language at the time in which the event occurred can also play a factor in how the child remembers the episode. Cultural differences in parenting styles and parent-child relationships can contribute to autobiographical memory at an early age.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fivush |first1=Robyn |last2=Nelson |first2=Katherine |title=Culture and Language in the Emergence of Autobiographical Memory |journal=Psychological Science |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=573–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15327626 |jstor=40064143 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00722.x |s2cid=12384439 }}</ref> Parent-child relationships have also seen as something that causes memory issues in adults as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|
==Memory Strategies==
Line 95:
In children under 7, the relationship between metamemory, strategy use, and recall is generally very weak or absent. This can be seen when comparing older children (over the age of 7) and preschool children on sorting tasks where children are asked to sort objects into groups that go together (for example animals)and attempt to recall them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=Wolfgang |year=1985 |title=Developmental Trends in the Metamemory-memory behavior Relationship: An Integrated Review |journal=Metacognition, Cognition and Human Performance |volume=1 |pages=57–109 |url=https://opus.uni-wuerzburg.de/opus4-wuerzburg/frontdoor/index/index/docId/6978 }}</ref><ref name="DOI 10.1037/0022-0663.92.1.144">{{cite journal |last1=Tiedemann |first1=Joachim |title=Parents' gender stereotypes and teachers' beliefs as predictors of children's concept of their mathematical ability in elementary school |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |volume=92 |issue=1 |year=2000 |pages=144–51 |doi=10.1037/0022-0663.92.1.144 }}</ref>
As Adults age they tend to lose the recall ability. In a study by Guerrero Sastoque et al., they discovered that this could be the result of changes in the types of memory strategies used to compensate with their slower recall ability.<ref>{{Cite journal|
====Preschool Children====
| |||