Content deleted Content added
→Anxiety and stress: Journal cites:, added 1 PMID |
Citation bot (talk | contribs) Alter: issue, url, title. Add: s2cid, pmid, author pars. 1-1. Removed URL that duplicated unique identifier. Removed parameters. Some additions/deletions were actually parameter name changes. | You can use this bot yourself. Report bugs here. | Suggested by AManWithNoPlan | All pages linked from cached copy of User:AManWithNoPlan/sandbox2 | via #UCB_webform_linked |
||
Line 3:
==Reconstructive process==
Memory rarely relies on a literal recount of past experiences. By using multiple interdependent cognitive processes, there is never a single ___location in the brain where a given complete [[Multiple trace theory|memory trace]] of an experience is stored.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Squire|first1=LR|year=1992|title=Memory and the hippocampus: a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans|url=http://whoville.ucsd.edu/PDFs/188_Squire_PsychRev_1992.pdf
of Cognitive Science, ed. MI Posner, pp.
683–725. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press</ref>
In this manner, the various features of the experience must be joined together to form a coherent representation of the episode.<ref>{{Cite journal|
Many errors can occur when attempting to retrieve a specific episode. First, the retrieval cues used to initiate the search for a specific episode may be too similar to other experiential memories and the retrieval process may fail if the individual is unable to form a specific description of the unique characteristics of the given memory they would like to retrieve.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Burgess | first1 = PW | last2 = Shallice | first2 = T | year = 1996 | title = Confabulation and the control of recollection | url = | journal = Memory | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 359–411 | doi = 10.1080/096582196388906 | pmid = 8817460 }}</ref> When there is little available distinctive information for a given episode there will be more overlap across multiple episodes, leading the individual to recall only the general similarities common to these memories. Ultimately proper recall for a desired target memory fails due to the interference of non-target memories that are activated because of their similarity.<ref>{{Cite journal|
Secondly, a large number of errors that occur during memory reconstruction are caused by faults in the criterion-setting and decision making processes used to direct attention towards retrieving a specific target memory. When there are lapses in recall of aspects of an episodic memory, the individual tends to supplement other aspects of knowledge that are unrelated to the actual episode in order to form a more cohesive and well-rounded reconstruction of the memory, regardless of whether or not the individual is aware of such supplemental processing. This process is known as [[confabulation]]. All of the supplemental processes occurring during the course of reconstruction rely on the use of schema, information networks that organize and store abstract knowledge in the brain.
Line 17:
===Schema===
[[Schema (psychology)|Schema]] are generally defined as mental information networks that represent some aspect of collected world knowledge. Frederic Bartlett was one of the first psychologists to propose Schematic theory, suggesting that the individual's understanding of the world is influenced by elaborate neural networks that organize abstract information and concepts.<ref name=Bartlett>{{cite web|url=http://iscte.pt/~fgvs/Bartlett,%20Experiments.pdf|title="Frederick Bartlett", Some Experiments on the Reproduction of Folk-Stories, March 30, 1920|publisher=}}</ref> Schema are fairly consistent and become strongly internalized in the individual through [[socialization]], which in turn alters the recall of [[episodic memory]]. Schema are understood to be central to reconstruction, used to confabulate and fill in gaps to provide a plausible narrative. Bartlett also showed that schema can be tied to cultural and social norms.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|
==== Jean Piaget's theory of schema ====
Line 38:
[[File:Hippocampus-mri.jpg|thumb|right|MRI indicating the hippocampus]]
Recent research using neuro-imaging technology including [[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI scanning]] has shown that there is an extensive amount of distributed brain activation during the process of episodic encoding and retrieval. Among the various regions, the two most active areas during the constructive processes are the [[medial temporal lobe]] (including the [[hippocampus]]) and the [[prefrontal cortex]].<ref name="schacter">{{cite journal | last1 = Schacter | first1 = DL | last2 = Norman | first2 = KA | last3 = Koutstaal | first3 = W | year = 1998 | title = The Cognitive Neuroscience of Constructive Memory | url = | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 49 | issue = | pages = 289–318 | doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.289| pmid = 9496626 }}</ref> The Medial Temporal lobe is especially vital for encoding novel events in episodic networks, with the Hippocampus acting as one of the central locations that acts to both combine and later separate the various features of an event.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tulving | first1 = E | authorlink2 = Hans Markowitsch | last2 = Markowitsch | first2 = H.J. | last3 = Kapur | first3 = S | last4 = Habib | first4 = R | last5 = Houle | first5 = S. | year = 1994 | title = Novelty encoding networks in the human brain: positron emission tomography data | url = | journal = NeuroReport | volume = 5 | issue = 18| pages = 2525–28 | doi=10.1097/00001756-199412000-00030| pmid = 7696595 }}</ref><ref name="mcclelland">McClelland JL, McNaughton BL, O’Reilly RC. 1995. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/57f1/16f3e6780424463cc8416ce755a72f873aa9.pdf Why There Are Complementary Learning Systems in the Hippocampus and Neocortex: Insights from the Successes and Failures of Connectionist Models of Learning and Memory]. Psychology Review 102:419–57</ref> Most popular research holds that the Hippocampus becomes less important in long term memory functioning after more extensive consolidation of the distinct features present at the time of episode encoding has occurred. In this way long term episodic functioning moves away from the CA3 region of the Hippocampal formation into the neocortex, effectively freeing up the CA3 area for more initial processing.<ref name="mcclelland" />
Studies have also consistently linked the activity of the Prefrontal Cortex, especially that which occurs in the right hemisphere, to the process of retrieval.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tulving | first1 = E | last2 = Kapur | first2 = S | last3 = Markowitsch | first3 = HJ | last4 = Craik | first4 = FIM | last5 = Habib | first5 = R | display-authors = et al | year = 1994 | title = Neuroanatomical Correlates of Retrieval in Episodic Memory: Auditory Sentence Recognition | url = | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA | volume = 91 | issue = 6| pages = 2012–15 | doi=10.1073/pnas.91.6.2012| pmid = 8134341 | pmc = 43299 }}</ref> The Prefrontal cortex appears to be utilized for executive functioning primarily for directing the focus of attention during retrieval processing, as well as for setting the appropriate criterion required to find the desired target memory.<ref name="schacter" />
Line 53:
Anxiety is a state of distress or uneasiness of mind caused by fear<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/anxiety|title=Anxiety - Define Anxiety at Dictionary.com|publisher=}}</ref> and it is a consistently associated with witnessing crimes. In a study done by Yuille and Cutshall (1986), they discovered that witnesses of real life violent crimes were able to remember the event quite vividly even five months after it originally occurred.<ref name="simplypsych"/> In fact, witnesses to violent or traumatic crimes often self-report the memory as being particularly vivid. For this reason, [[eyewitness memory]] is often listed as an example of [[flashbulb memory]].
However, in a study by Clifford and Scott (1978), participants were shown either a film of a violent crime or a film of a non-violent crime. The participants who viewed the stressful film had difficulty remembering details about the event compared to the participants that watched the non-violent film.<ref name="simplypsych" /> In a study by Brigham et al. (2010), subjects who experienced an electrical shock were less accurate in facial recognition tests, suggesting that some details were not well remembered under stressful situations.<ref>{{Cite journal|
Further studies on flashbulb memories seem to indicate that witnesses may recall vivid sensory content unrelated to the actual event but which enhance its perceived vividness.<ref>{{Citation|
====Application of schema====
Line 61:
====Cross-race effect====
Reconstructing the face of another race requires the use of schemas that may not be as developed and refined as those of the same race.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pezdek | first1 = K. | last2 = Blandon-Gitlin | first2 = I. | last3 = Moore | first3 = C. | year = 2003 | title = Children's Face Recognition Memory: More Evidence for the Cross-Race Effect | url = http://infantlab.fiu.edu/Articles/Pedzke%20et%20al%202003.pdf | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 88 | issue = 4| pages = 760–763 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.760| citeseerx = 10.1.1.365.6517 | pmid = 12940414 }}</ref> The [[cross-race effect]] is the tendency that people have to distinguish among other of their race than of other races. Although the exact cause of the effect is unknown, there are two main theories that are supported. The perceptual expertise hypothesis postulates that because most people are raised and are more likely to associate with others of the same race, they develop an expertise in identifying the faces of that race. The other main theory is the in-group advantage. It has been shown in the lab that people are better at discriminating the emotions of in-group members than those of out-groups.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Elfenbein | first1 = H. A. | last2 = Ambady | first2 = N. | year = 2003 | title = When familiarity breeds accuracy: Cultural exposure and facial emotion recognition | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 85 | issue = 2| pages = 276–290 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.276| pmid = 12916570 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.200.1256 }}</ref>
====Leading questions====
Often during eyewitness testimonies the witness is interrogated about their particular view of an incident and often the interrogator will use [[leading question]]s to direct and control the type of response that is elicited by the witness.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Loftus | first1 = E.F. | year = 1975 | title = Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Report | url = http://www.someya-net.com/01-Tsuyaku/Reading/Loftus75.pdf
* "What was the approximate height of the robber?" which would lead the respondent to estimate the height according to their original perceptions. They could alternatively be asked:
* "How short was the robber?" which would persuade the respondent to recall that the robber was actually shorter than they had originally perceived.
Line 79:
====Priming====
Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli due to prior experience<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.apa.org/|title=APA Dictionary of Psychology|website=dictionary.apa.org|language=en|access-date=2020-04-14}}</ref>. Priming is believed to occur outside of conscious awareness, which makes it different from memory that relies on the direct retrieval of information.<ref>Cherry, K. (2009, March 26). Priming - What Is Priming. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts.</ref> Priming can influence reconstructive memory because it can interfere with retrieval cues. Psychologist [[Elizabeth Loftus]] presented many papers concerning the effects of proactive interference on the recall of eyewitness events. Interference involving priming was established in her classic [[Reconstruction of automobile destruction|study]] with John Palmer in 1974.<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://webfiles.uci.edu/eloftus/LoftusPalmer74.pdf | last = Loftus | first = EF |author2=Palmer JC | authorlink = Elizabeth Loftus | year = 1974 | title = Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction :
* Group A contained 50 participants that were asked "About how fast were the cars going when they '''hit''' each other?”
Line 90:
===Confabulation===
[[File:Schizophrenia fMRI working memory.jpg|thumb|right|FMRI showing the active areas of a schizophrenic participant's brain while performing working memory tasks]]
[[Confabulation]] is the involuntary false remembering of events and can be a characteristic of several psychological diseases such as [[Korsakoff's syndrome]], [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[schizophrenia]] and traumatic injury of certain brain structures<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robins|first=Sarah K.|date=2019-06-01|title=Confabulation and constructive memory
In the regular process of reconstruction, several sources are used accrue information and add detail to a memory. For patients producing confabulations, some key sources of information are missing and so other sources are used to produce a cohesive, internally consistent and often believable [[false memory]].<ref name=book>{{cite book |editor-last=Nalbantian |editor-first=Suzanne |title=The memory process : neuroscientific and humanistic perspectives|year=2010|publisher=MIT Press|___location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=978-0-262-01457-1 |editor2=Matthews, Paul M. |editor3=McClelland, James L.}}</ref> The source and type of confabulations differ for each type of disease or area of traumatic damage.
| |||