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'''Push–pull perfusion''' is an [[in vivo]] sampling method most commonly used for measuring neurotransmitters in the brain. Developed by J.H. Gaddum in 1960,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gaddum|first=J.H.|title=Push-pull cannulae|journal=Journal of Physiology|year=1961|volume=155|issue=1|pages=1P–2P}}</ref>
this technique replaced the [[cortical cup]] technique for observing neurotransmitters. The advent of concentric [[microdialysis]] probes in the 1980s resulted in push-pull sampling falling out of favor, as such probes require less monitoring, and are less invasive than the higher flow rate push-pull probes (>10 microliter/min), which could result in lesions if flow is unbalanced.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Myers|first=R.D.|author2=Adell, A. |author3=Lankford, M.F. |title=Simultaneous comparison of cerebral dialysis and push-pull perfusion in the brain of rats: a critical review|journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|year=1998|volume=22|issue=3|pages=371–387|doi=10.1016/S0149-7634(97)00025-0 |pmid=9579326|s2cid=36994607}}</ref>
With the advent of [[microfluidics]] and miniaturized probes, low-flow push–pull sampling was developed in 2002.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kottegoda|first=Sumith|author2=Shaik, Imtiazuddin |author3=Shippy, Scott A. |title=Demonstration of low flow push-pull perfusion|journal=Journal of Neuroscience Methods|year=2002|volume=121|issue=1|pages=93–101|doi=10.1016/S0165-0270(02)00245-5|pmid=12393165 |s2cid=23666332}}</ref> By using flow rates of ~50 [[Nanoliter|nL]]/min, this technique minimizes tissue damage while providing finer spatial resolution than [[microdialysis]] sampling.
== References ==
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