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Government-funded research on reading instruction in the United States and elsewhere began in the 1960s. In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers began publishing studies with evidence on the effectiveness of different instructional approaches. During this time, researchers at the [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) conducted studies that showed early reading acquisition depends on the understanding of the connection between sounds and letters (i.e. phonics). However, this appears to have had little effect on educational practices in public schools.<ref>{{cite book |author=Adams, Marilyn Jager |title=Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1994 |isbn=0-262-51076-6 |oclc=256731826 |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningtoread00mari }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/jameskim/publications/research-and-reading-wars-0|title=Research and the reading wars, James S. Kim, The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 89, No. 5 (Jan., 2008), pp. 372-375|access-date=2018-06-15|language=en}}</ref>
In the 1970s, the [[whole language]] method was introduced. This method de-emphasizes the teaching of phonics out of context (e.g. reading books), and is intended to help readers "guess" the right word.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A psycholinguistic guessing game|journal=Journal of the Reading Specialist|volume=6|issue=4|pages=126–135|doi=10.1080/19388076709556976|year = 1967|last1 = Goodman|first1 = Kenneth S.}}</ref> It teaches that guessing individual words should involve three systems (letter clues, meaning clues from context, and the syntactical structure of the sentence). It became the primary method of reading instruction in the 1980s and 1990s. However, it is falling out of favor. The neuroscientist [[Mark Seidenberg]] refers to it as a "theoretical zombie" because it persists in spite of a lack of supporting evidence.<ref> {{cite book |title ="The persistence of the [whole language] ideas despite the mass of evidence against them is most striking at this point. In normal science, a theory whose assumptions and predictions have been repeatedly contradicted by data will be discarded. That is what happened to the Smith and Goodman theories within reading science, but in education they are theoretical zombies that cannot be stopped by conventional weapons such as empirical disconfirmation, leaving them free to roam the educational landscape." Language at the speed of light, 2017, page 271, Mark Seidenberg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/RF/introduction/|title=Reading foundational skills, Common Core States Standards Initiative, USA}}</ref> It is still widely practiced in related methods such as [[Sight word|sight words]], the 3-cueing system and [[balanced literacy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apmreports.org/story/2018/09/10/hard-words-why-american-kids-arent-being-taught-to-read |title=Hard Words: Why American kids aren't being taught to read, ARM Reports 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Adams, Marilyn Jager |title=Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1994 |isbn=0-262-51076-6 |oclc=256731826 |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningtoread00mari }}</ref><ref name="LDOnline">{{cite web |last1=Moats |first1=Louisa |title=Whole Language Lives On: The Illusion of Balanced Reading Instruction |url=http://www.ldonline.org/article/6394/ |website=LD Online |publisher=WETA Public Television |
In the 1980s the [[#three-cueing system|three-cueing system]] (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the USA teach the three-cueing system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edweek.org/media/ed%20week%20reading%20instruction%20survey%20report-final%201.24.20.pdf|title=Early reading instruction survey, EdWeek Research Center, USA|date=2010}}</ref> It teaches children to guess a word by using "meaning cues" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to "make better guesses", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists [[Mark Seidenberg]] and professor [[Timothy Shanahan (educator)|Timothy Shanahan]] do not support the theory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/blogs/shanahan-literacy/it-good-idea-teach-three-cueing-systems-reading|title=Is It a Good Idea to Teach the Three Cueing Systems in Reading|date=2019-04-01|author=Timothy Shanahan, Reading Rockets}}</ref><ref> {{cite book |title=Language at the speed of light|date=2017|pages=300–304|author=Mark Seidenberg|isbn=9780465080656}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nifdi.org/resources/hempenstall-blog/402-the-three-cueing-system-in-reading-will-it-ever-go-away|title=The three-cueing system in reading: Will it ever go away|author=Dr Kerry Hempenstall, Senior Industry Fellow, School of Education, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia|date=2017-10-29}}</ref> In England, [[synthetic phonics]] is intended to replace "the searchlights multi-cueing model".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/pdfs/2006-primary-national-strategy.pdf|page=18|title=Primary Framework for literacy and mathematics, Department for education and skills, England|year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-05-12|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, 2006|access-date=2020-05-22}}</ref>
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* 2000 - The [[National Reading Panel]] (U.S.A.) that identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction: ''phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National reading panel, nichd.nih.gov}}</ref>
* 2005 - The [[Australia|Australian]] report on ''Teaching reading'' that supports the use of [[Systematic Phonics|systematic phonics]]. <ref name="Teaching Reading">{{cite web |url=http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=2&article=1004&context=tll_misc&type=additional |title=Teaching Reading |format=PDF |work= Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training. }}</ref>
* 2006 - The [[United Kingdom]] [[Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)]] that supports [[Phonics#Synthetic phonics|systematic synthetic phonics]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf | title = Independent review of the teaching of early reading |
In [[Australia]] the 2005 report, ''Teaching Reading'', recommends teaching reading based on evidence and teaching systematic, explicit phonics within an integrated approach.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233365611|title=Learning to read in Australia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://research.acer.edu.au/tll_misc/5/|title=Rowe, K., & National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy (Australia). (2005)}}</ref> The executive summary says "[[phonics#Systematic phonics|systematic phonics]] instruction is critical if children are to be taught to read well, whether or not they experience reading difficulties."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |title=Executive Summary |work=Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422080804/http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-22 }}</ref> As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including effective reading instruction, phonics, and sample phonics lessons.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/litfocusphonics.aspx#link15|title=Foundation phonics scope, Victoria, AU}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/phonicslessons.aspx|title=Sample phonics lessons, The State Government of Victoria}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/litfocusphonics.aspx#link15|title=Foundation skills, The State Government of Victoria, AU}}</ref>
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In 2010 the [[Common Core State Standards Initiative]] was introduced in the USA. The ''English Language Arts Standards for Reading: Foundational Skills in Grades 1-5'' include recommendations to teach print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, and fluency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/RF/1/|title=USA Common Core State Standards Initiative, grade 1}}</ref>
In the [[United Kingdom]] a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8147987/Education-White-Paper-key-points-explained.html|title=Education White Paper key points explained|publisher=The Daily Telegraph [Telegraph.co.uk]|
In 2013, the National Commission for [[UNESCO]] launched the ''Leading for Literacy'' project to develop the literacy skills of grades 1 and 2 students. The project facilitates the training of primary school teachers in the use of a synthetic phonics program. From 2013 to 2015, the [[Trinidad & Tobago]] Ministry of Education appointed seven reading specialist to help primary and secondary school teachers improve their literacy instruction. From February 2014 to January 2016, literacy coaches were hired in selected primary schools to assist teachers of kindergarten, grades 1 and 2 with pedagogy and content of early literacy instruction. Primary schools have been provided with literacy resources for instruction, including phonemic awareness, word recognition, vocabulary manipulatives, phonics and comprehension.
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==Acquiring reading==
A child's ability to learn to read, known as [[reading readiness]], begins in infancy, as the child begins attending to the speech signals in their environment and begins producing spoken language.<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 81-83">{{cite book |author1=Wolf, Maryanne |author2=Stoodley, Catherine J. |title=Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain |publisher=Harper |___location=New York |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/81 81–83] |isbn=978-0-06-018639-5 |oclc=471015779 |url=https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/81 }}</ref> Children make some use of all the material that they are presented with, including every perception, concept and word they come in contact with; thus the child's environment affects their ability to learn to read.<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 81-83"/> The amount of time a child spends listening to someone read to them is a good predictor of their reading attainment later in life.<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 81-83"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Fields|first=Tiffany|title=Touch Therapy|year=2000|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|___location=New York|isbn=978-0-443-05791-5|pages=255}}</ref> As a child listens to stories and looks at pictures they gradually learn the relationship between letters, words and stories.<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 81-83"/> Preschool-aged children with limited exposure to books and reading in their home, including limited experience of being read to, are at risk of reading difficulties.<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 81-83"/> For example, these children tend to have less exposure to literary phrases, such as "Once upon a time",<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 81-83"/> and have smaller vocabularies,<ref>{{cite web|last=Biemiller|first=Andrew|title=Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network|url=http://www.literacyencyclopedia.ca/pdfs/topic.php?topId=19|
Thus, the ideal process of what is called emergent or early literacy<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 81-83"/> begins in the relationship between hearing spoken language, seeing [[written language]] and feeling loved. The positive feeling that arises from spending time with books in a loving context provides a strong foundation and intrinsic [[motivation]] for the long and cognitively challenging process of learning to read.<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 81-83"/> However, reading to children and ensuring exposure to many [[books]] is not enough to prepare them for reading.<ref name="Wolf90">{{cite book |author1=Wolf, Maryanne |author2=Stoodley, Catherine J. |title=Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain |publisher=Harper |___location=New York |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/90 90] |isbn=978-0-06-018639-5 |oclc=471015779 |url=https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/90 }}</ref> Another critical skill is the ability to name letters or characters.<ref name="Wolf90"/>
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The emerging pre-reader stage, also known as [[reading readiness]], usually lasts for the first five years of a child's life.<ref name="Wolf, 2007, 115-139">{{cite book |author1=Wolf, Maryanne |author2=Stoodley, Catherine J. |title=Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain |publisher=Harper |___location=New York |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/115 115–139] |isbn=978-0-06-018639-5 |oclc=471015779 |url=https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/115 }}</ref> Children typically speak their first few words before their first birthday.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theroadmap.ualberta.ca/vocalizings/parents/10-12|title=Handbook of Language and Literacy, Canadian Centre for Research on Literacy, University of Alberta, Canada}}</ref>
Reading to children helps them to develop their vocabulary, a love of reading, and [[phonemic awareness]], (the ability to hear and manipulate the individual sounds ([[phonemes]]) of oral language). And children will often "read" stories they have memorized. However, in the late 1990s United States' researchers found that the traditional way of reading to children made little difference in their later ability to read because children spend relatively little time actually looking at the text. Yet, they found that directing children's attention to the letters and words (e.g. verbally or pointing to the words) made a significant difference in early reading, spelling and comprehension.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2012/05/29/153927743/small-change-in-reading-to-preschoolers-can-help-disadvantaged-kids-catch-up|title=Small Change In Reading To Preschoolers Can Help Disadvantaged Kids Catch Up|agency=NPR|author=Alix Spegel|date=2012-05-29|
===Novice reader - 6 to 7 years old===
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Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as: analogy phonics, analytic phonics, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics. However, their effectiveness vary considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, Rose report, 2006, UK, pg. 2-89}}</ref>
Systematic phonics has gained increased acceptance in different parts of the world since the completion of three major studies into teaching reading; one in the US in 2000,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www1.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=Complete report - National Reading Panel}}</ref><ref name="nichd findings">{{cite web |url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.cfm |title=Findings and Determinations of the National Reading Panel by Topic Areas
In 2009, the UK [[Department of Education]] published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as [[Synthetic phonics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100205061400/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/Primary_curriculum_Report.pdf|title=Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum}}</ref>
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=====Synthetic phonics=====
{{Main|Synthetic phonics}}
''[[Synthetic phonics]]'', also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by ''sounding out'' the letters then ''blending'' the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, ''shrouds'' would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, ''sh,r,ou,d,s'' (IPA {{IPAc-en|ʃ|,_|r|,_|aʊ|,_|d|,_|z}}), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, ''sh - r - ou - d - s= shrouds'' (IPA {{IPAc-en|ʃ|r|aʊ|d|z}}). The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum: Final Report|url=https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/Primary_curriculum_Report.pdf|publisher=DCSF Publications|
The 2005 [[Rose Report]] from the UK concluded that systematic [[synthetic phonics]] was the most effective method for teaching reading. It also suggests the "best teaching" included a brisk pace, engaging children's interest with [[Multisensory learning|multi-sensory activities]] and stimulating resources, praise for effort and achievement; and above all, the full backing of the headteacher.<ref>{{cite web|title=Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum: Final Report, pages 16 and 49|url=https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/eOrderingDownload/Primary_curriculum_Report.pdf|publisher=DCSF Publications|
It also has considerable support in some [[Phonics#Phonics in the United States|States]] in the U.S.A.<ref name="NICHD, 2006">{{cite web |url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.cfm |title=Findings and Determinations of the National Reading Panel by Topic Areas |work=NICHD Publications and Materials |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705194256/http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/findings.cfm |archive-date=2008-07-05 }}</ref> and some support from expert panels in [[Phonics#Phonics in Canada|Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Early Reading Strategy: The Report of the Expert Panel on Early Reading in Ontario|url=http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/reports/reading/reading.pdf|publisher=Ministry of Education|
In the US, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools.<ref>[http://www.coreknowledge.org/mimik/mimik_uploads/documents/712/CK%20Early%20Literacy%20Pilot%203%2012%2012.pdf Core Knowledge Early Literacy Pilot in NYC]</ref> In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see [[Synthetic phonics#United States|synthetic phonics in the USA]]).
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According to the report by the US [[National Reading Panel]] (NRP) in 2000,
<ref>name="National Reading Panel, 2000, Summary">{{cite web |url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National Reading Panel (NRP) – Summary Report (2000)}}</ref><ref name="National Reading Panel, 2000, Subgroups">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org/publications/subgroups.htm |title=National Reading Panel (NRP) – Reports of the Subgroups |work=National Reading Panel, 2000 (NRP) – Publications and Materials |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611011153/http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org/publications/subgroups.htm |archive-date=2010-06-11 }}</ref> the skills required for proficient reading of [[alphabet]]ic languages are [[phonemic awareness]], [[phonics]], [[fluency]],<ref name="Rasinski, T">{{cite web |url=http://www.prel.org/products/re_/assessing-fluency.htm |title=Assessing Reading Fluency |author=Rasinski, T. |publisher=Pacific Resources for Education and Learning |
The [[Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)|Rose Report]], from the [[Department for Education]] in England makes it clear that, in their view, [[phonics#Systematic phonics|systematic phonics]], specifically [[synthetic phonics]], is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|archive-url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-05-12|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study|title= National curriculum in England: English programmes of study}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/379489/Getting_20them_20reading_20early.doc|title=Getting them Reading Early, OFSTED, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5wGfNiweEkI|title=Synthetic Phonics, Mr. T's phonics, 2010}}</ref> In 2005 the government of [[Australia]] published a report stating "The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |title=Executive Summary |work=Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422080804/http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-22 }}</ref> Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page [[Phonics#Practices by country or region|Practices by country or region]].
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===Decoding===
{{Main|Dyslexia}}
Difficulty with decoding is marked by having not acquired the [[phoneme]]-[[grapheme]] mapping concept. One specific disability characterized by poor decoding is [[dyslexia]], defined as brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read.<ref name="nih">{{cite web|title=NINDS Dyslexia Information Page|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm|publisher=[[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]]|
===Reading rate===
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{{Main|PISA}}
The ''Programme for International Student Assessment [[PISA]]'' measures '''15-year-old school pupils'''' scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/|title=About PISA|website=OECD PISA|
==See also==
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