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[[File:Reading_with_Children_%28Millais%29.png|thumb|Reading with children]]
===Alphabetic languages===
Educators have debated for years about which method is best to teach reading for the English language. There are three main methods, [[phonics]], [[whole language]] and [[balanced literacy]]. There are also a variety of other areas and practices such as [[phonemic awareness, fluency, reading comprehension, rapid automatized naming, sight words and sight vocabulary, the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England), [[guided reading]], [[shared reading]]
In 2001, some researchers reached two conclusions: 1) "mastering the alphabetic principle is essential" and 2) "instructional techniques (namely, phonics) that teach this principle directly are more effective than those that do not". However, while they make it clear they have some fundamental disagreements with some of the claims made by whole-language advocates, some principles of whole language have value such as the need to ensure that students are enthusiastic about books and eager to learn to read.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|title=HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE INFORMS THE TEACHING OF READING, American Psychological Society, VOL. 2, NO. 2, NOVEMBER 2001, page 57}}</ref>
====Phonics and related areas====
{{Main|Phonics}}
[[Phonics]] emphasizes the [[alphabetic principle]] – the idea that letters ([[graphemes]]) represent the sounds of speech ([[phonemes]]). It is taught in a variety of ways; some are systematic and others are
According to a 2018 review of research related to ''English speaking poor readers'', phonics training is effective for improving literacy-related skills, particularly the fluent reading of words and non-words, and the accurate reading of irregular words.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McArthur|first1=Genevieve|last2=Sheehan|first2=Yumi|last3=Badcock|first3=Nicholas A.|last4=Francis|first4=Deanna A.|last5=Wang|first5=Hua-Chen|last6=Kohnen|first6=Saskia|last7=Banales|first7=Erin|last8=Anandakumar|first8=Thushara|last9=Marinus|first9=Eva|last10=Castles|first10=Anne|date=14 November 2018|title=Phonics training for English-speaking poor readers|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=11|pages=CD009115|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009115.pub3|issn=1469-493X|pmc=6517252|pmid=30480759}}</ref>
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Resources for teaching phonics are available [[Phonics#Resources for phonics instruction|here]]
=====Related areas=====
======Phonemic awareness======▼
[[Phonemic awareness]] is the process by which the [[phonemes]] (sounds of oral language) are heard, interpreted, understood and manipulated; unrelated to their [[grapheme]] (written language). [[Phonological awareness]], which includes the manipulation of [[rhymes]], [[syllable]]s, and [[syllable onset|onsets]] and [[syllable rime|rimes]], is most prevalent in alphabetic systems.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ehri|first=Linnea|author2=Simone Nunes |author3=Dale Willows |author4=Barbara Valeska Schuster |author5=Zohreh Yaghoub-Zadeh |author6-link=Timothy Shanahan (educator)|author6= Timothy Shanahan (educator |title=Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis|journal=Reading Research Quarterly|date=July–September 2001|volume=36|issue=3|pages=250–287 |jstor=748111|doi=10.1598/RRQ.36.3.2}}</ref> The specific part of speech depends on the [[writing system]] employed. The NRP concluded that phonemic awareness improves a learner's ability to learn to read. When teaching phonemic awareness, the NRP found that better results were obtained with focused and explicit instruction of one or two elements, over five or more hours, in small groups, and using the corresponding [[graphemes]] (letters).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National Reading Panel, 2000, NICHD, p. 2-4}}</ref> See also '''[[speech perception]]'''.▼
======Vocabulary======▼
A critical aspect of reading comprehension is vocabulary development.<ref name="Justice 2002 87–106"/> When a reader encounters an unfamiliar word in print and decodes it to derive its spoken pronunciation, the reader understands the word if it is in the reader's spoken vocabulary. Otherwise, the reader must derive the meaning of the word using another strategy, such as context. If the development of the child's vocabulary is impeded by things such as ear infections, that inhibit the child from hearing new words consistently, then the development of reading will also be impaired.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Wolf, Maryanne |author2=Stoodley, Catherine J. |title=Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain |publisher=Harper |___location=New York |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/104 104–105] |isbn=978-0-06-018639-5 |oclc=471015779 |url=https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/104 }}</ref>▼
======Sight vocabulary vs. Sight words======
'''[[Sight word]]s''' (i.e. high-frequency or common words), sometimes called the "look-say" method or whole-word method, are ''not'' a part of the phonics method. They are usually associated with [[whole language]] and [[balanced literacy]] where students are expected to memorize common words such as those on the [[Dolch word list]] and the Fry word list (e.g. a, be, call, do, eat, fall, gave, etc.).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uen.org/k-2educator/word_lists.shtml|title=Fry Instant Words, UTAH EDUCATION NETWORK}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/mcgraw-hill-education-acknowledges-enduring-contributions-of-reading-and-language-arts-scholar-author-and-innovator-ed-fry-102954189.html|title=McGraw-Hill Education Acknowledges Enduring Contributions of Reading and Language Arts Scholar, Author and Innovator Ed Fry, McGraw-Hill Education, Sep 15, 2010}}</ref> The supposition (in whole language and balanced literacy) is that students will learn to read more easily if they memorize the most common words they will encounter, especially words that are not easily decoded (i.e. exceptions).▼
On the other hand using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the [[alphabetic principle]] and treating English as though it was a [[logographic]] language (e.g. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Underground History of American Education |last=Gatto |first=John Taylor |publisher=The Oxford Village Press |year=2006 |isbn=0945700040 |___location=Oxford, NY |pages=70–72 |chapter=Eyless in Gaza}}</ref>▼
In addition, according to research, whole-word memorisation is "labor-intensive", requiring on average about 35 trials per word.<ref name="Bruce Murray 2019">{{cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Bruce|last2=McIlwain|first2=Jane|title=How do beginners learn to read irregular words as sight words|journal=Journal of Research in Reading|volume=42|issue=1|year=2019|pages=123–136|issn=0141-0423 ▼
|doi=10.1111/1467-9817.12250}}</ref> Also, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, "the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|title=HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE INFORMS THE TEACHING OF READING, VOL. 2, NO. 2, NOVEMBER 2001, page 40.}}</ref> Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children “are having the opposite effect” by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all.<ref>{{cite book |author=Seidenberg, Mark |title=Language at the speed of sight, pg. 147|publisher=Basic Books|___location=New York, NY|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref>▼
'''Sight vocabulary''' is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. The process, called ''[[Orthography|orthographic]] mapping'', involves ''decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading''. It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. ''Irregular words'' pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that "fully-alphabetic students" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called ''hierarchical decoding''. In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, ''break (b - r - '''ea - '''k), height (h - '''eigh''' - t), touch (t - '''ou - ch'''), and make (m - '''a'''- k'''e''')''. Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on "teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words".<ref name="Bruce Murray 2019"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/research-by-topic/orthographic-mapping-acquisition-sight-word-reading-spelling-memory-and-vocabulary|title=Orthographic mapping, Reading rockets}}</ref>▼
======Fluency======▼
[[Fluency]] is ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and [[vocal]] expression. The ability to read fluently is one of several critical factors necessary for reading comprehension. If a reader is not fluent, it may be difficult to remember what has been read and to relate the ideas expressed in the text to their background knowledge. This accuracy and [[automaticity]] of reading serves as a bridge between decoding and comprehension.<ref name="Rasinski, T"/>▼
======Reading comprehension======▼
The NRP describes reading comprehension as a complex [[cognitive]] process in which a reader intentionally and interactively engages with the text. Reading comprehension is heavily dependent on skilled word recognition and decoding,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kendeou P, Savage R, van den Broek P |title=Revisiting the simple view of reading |journal=Br J Educ Psychol |volume=79 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=353–70 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19091164 |doi=10.1348/978185408X369020 }}</ref> oral reading fluency, a well-developed vocabulary and active engagement with the text.▼
====Whole language====
{{Main|Whole language}}
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According to phonics advocate and cognitive neuroscientist [[Mark Seidenberg]], balanced literacy allows educators to diffuse the [[Phonics#The Reading Wars - Phonics vs. Whole language|reading wars]] while not making specific recommendations for change. He goes on to say that, in his opinion, the high number of struggling readers in the USA is the result of the manner in which teachers are taught to teach reading.<ref name="Seidenberg, Mark 2017">{{cite book |author=Seidenberg, Mark |title=Language at the speed of sight|publisher=Basic Books|___location=New York, NY|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2016/international-results/pirls/student-achievement/pirls-achievement-results/|title=2016 PIRLS grade 4 international reading results}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationsreportcard.gov|title=NAEP Nations report card, USA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/PISA%202018%20Insights%20and%20Interpretations%20FINAL%20PDF.pdf|title=PISA 2018 Age 15 International scores in reading, math and science}}</ref> He also says that struggling readers should not be encouraged to skip a challenging word, nor rely on pictures or semantic and syntactic cues to "guess at" a challenging word. Instead, they should use [[Evidence-based education|evidence-based]] decoding methods such as [[Phonics#Systematic phonics|systematic phonics]]. <ref>{{cite book |author=Seidenberg, Mark |title=Language at the speed of sight, pages 267 & 300-304|publisher=Basic Books|___location=New York, NY|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/blogs/shanahan-literacy/it-good-idea-teach-three-cueing-systems-reading|title=Is it a Good Idea to Teach the Three Cueing Systems in Reading?, Timothy Shanahan, Reading Rockets, 2019-04-01}}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url=https://www.nifdi.org/news-latest-2/blog-hempenstall/402-the-three-cueing-system-in-reading-will-it-ever-go-away|title=The three-cueing system in reading: Will it ever go away, National Institute for Direct Instruction }}</ref>
▲====Phonemic awareness====
▲[[Phonemic awareness]] is the process by which the [[phonemes]] (sounds of oral language) are heard, interpreted, understood and manipulated; unrelated to their [[grapheme]] (written language). [[Phonological awareness]], which includes the manipulation of [[rhymes]], [[syllable]]s, and [[syllable onset|onsets]] and [[syllable rime|rimes]], is most prevalent in alphabetic systems.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ehri|first=Linnea|author2=Simone Nunes |author3=Dale Willows |author4=Barbara Valeska Schuster |author5=Zohreh Yaghoub-Zadeh |author6-link=Timothy Shanahan (educator)|author6= Timothy Shanahan (educator |title=Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel's meta-analysis|journal=Reading Research Quarterly|date=July–September 2001|volume=36|issue=3|pages=250–287 |jstor=748111|doi=10.1598/RRQ.36.3.2}}</ref> The specific part of speech depends on the [[writing system]] employed. The NRP concluded that phonemic awareness improves a learner's ability to learn to read. When teaching phonemic awareness, the NRP found that better results were obtained with focused and explicit instruction of one or two elements, over five or more hours, in small groups, and using the corresponding [[graphemes]] (letters).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf|title=National Reading Panel, 2000, NICHD, p. 2-4}}</ref> See also '''[[speech perception]]'''.
▲'''[[Sight word]]s''' (i.e. high-frequency or common words), sometimes called the "look-say" method or whole-word method, are ''not'' a part of the phonics method. They are usually associated with [[whole language]] and [[balanced literacy]] where students are expected to memorize common words such as those on the [[Dolch word list]] and the Fry word list (e.g. a, be, call, do, eat, fall, gave, etc.).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uen.org/k-2educator/word_lists.shtml|title=Fry Instant Words, UTAH EDUCATION NETWORK}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/mcgraw-hill-education-acknowledges-enduring-contributions-of-reading-and-language-arts-scholar-author-and-innovator-ed-fry-102954189.html|title=McGraw-Hill Education Acknowledges Enduring Contributions of Reading and Language Arts Scholar, Author and Innovator Ed Fry, McGraw-Hill Education, Sep 15, 2010}}</ref> The supposition (in whole language and balanced literacy) is that students will learn to read more easily if they memorize the most common words they will encounter, especially words that are not easily decoded (i.e. exceptions).
▲On the other hand using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the [[alphabetic principle]] and treating English as though it was a [[logographic]] language (e.g. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]]).<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Underground History of American Education |last=Gatto |first=John Taylor |publisher=The Oxford Village Press |year=2006 |isbn=0945700040 |___location=Oxford, NY |pages=70–72 |chapter=Eyless in Gaza}}</ref>
▲In addition, according to research, whole-word memorisation is "labor-intensive", requiring on average about 35 trials per word.<ref name="Bruce Murray 2019">{{cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Bruce|last2=McIlwain|first2=Jane|title=How do beginners learn to read irregular words as sight words|journal=Journal of Research in Reading|volume=42|issue=1|year=2019|pages=123–136|issn=0141-0423
▲|doi=10.1111/1467-9817.12250}}</ref> Also, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, "the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pdf/pspi22.pdf|title=HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE INFORMS THE TEACHING OF READING, VOL. 2, NO. 2, NOVEMBER 2001, page 40.}}</ref> Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children “are having the opposite effect” by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all.<ref>{{cite book |author=Seidenberg, Mark |title=Language at the speed of sight, pg. 147|publisher=Basic Books|___location=New York, NY|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5416-1715-5}}</ref>
▲'''Sight vocabulary''' is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. The process, called ''[[Orthography|orthographic]] mapping'', involves ''decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading''. It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. ''Irregular words'' pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that "fully-alphabetic students" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called ''hierarchical decoding''. In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, ''break (b - r - '''ea - '''k), height (h - '''eigh''' - t), touch (t - '''ou - ch'''), and make (m - '''a'''- k'''e''')''. Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on "teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words".<ref name="Bruce Murray 2019"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readingrockets.org/research-by-topic/orthographic-mapping-acquisition-sight-word-reading-spelling-memory-and-vocabulary|title=Orthographic mapping, Reading rockets}}</ref>
====The three-cueing system (The searchlights model)====
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The [[Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)|Rose Report]], from the [[Department for Education]] in England makes it clear that, in their view, [[phonics#Systematic phonics|systematic phonics]], specifically [[synthetic phonics]], is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|archive-url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100512233640/http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/0201-2006PDF-EN-01.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-05-12|title=Independent review of the teaching of early reading, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study/national-curriculum-in-england-english-programmes-of-study|title= National curriculum in England: English programmes of study}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/379489/Getting_20them_20reading_20early.doc|title=Getting them Reading Early, OFSTED, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5wGfNiweEkI|title=Synthetic Phonics, Mr. T's phonics, 2010}}</ref> In 2005 the government of [[Australia]] published a report stating "The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |title=Executive Summary |work=Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422080804/http://www.dest.gov.au/nitl/documents/executive_summary.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-22 }}</ref> Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page [[Phonics#Practices by country or region|Practices by country or region]].
▲===Fluency===
▲[[Fluency]] is ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and [[vocal]] expression. The ability to read fluently is one of several critical factors necessary for reading comprehension. If a reader is not fluent, it may be difficult to remember what has been read and to relate the ideas expressed in the text to their background knowledge. This accuracy and [[automaticity]] of reading serves as a bridge between decoding and comprehension.<ref name="Rasinski, T"/>
▲===Vocabulary===
▲A critical aspect of reading comprehension is vocabulary development.<ref name="Justice 2002 87–106"/> When a reader encounters an unfamiliar word in print and decodes it to derive its spoken pronunciation, the reader understands the word if it is in the reader's spoken vocabulary. Otherwise, the reader must derive the meaning of the word using another strategy, such as context. If the development of the child's vocabulary is impeded by things such as ear infections, that inhibit the child from hearing new words consistently, then the development of reading will also be impaired.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Wolf, Maryanne |author2=Stoodley, Catherine J. |title=Proust and the squid: the story and science of the reading brain |publisher=Harper |___location=New York |year=2007 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/104 104–105] |isbn=978-0-06-018639-5 |oclc=471015779 |url=https://archive.org/details/proustsquidstory00wolf/page/104 }}</ref>
▲===Reading comprehension===
▲The NRP describes reading comprehension as a complex [[cognitive]] process in which a reader intentionally and interactively engages with the text. Reading comprehension is heavily dependent on skilled word recognition and decoding,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kendeou P, Savage R, van den Broek P |title=Revisiting the simple view of reading |journal=Br J Educ Psychol |volume=79 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=353–70 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19091164 |doi=10.1348/978185408X369020 }}</ref> oral reading fluency, a well-developed vocabulary and active engagement with the text.
===Rapid automatized naming===
[[Rapid automatized naming]], the ability to say quickly the names of letters, objects and colors, predicts an individual's ability to read. This might be linked to the importance of quick retrieval of [[phonological]] representations from [[long-term memory]] in reading and the importance of object-naming circuits in the left [[cerebral hemisphere]] that are recruited to underpin a learner's word-recognition abilities.<ref name="Lervåg"/><ref name="Denckla MB 1974"/>
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