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Tobacco smoking

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Tobacco smoking is the act of smoking tobacco products, especially cigarettes and cigars.

Various smoking equipment including different pipes, and cigars. 1: cigar box 2: cigar 3: various pipes 4: waterpipe 5: joss stick 6: bong
File:Kungensmoks.jpg
The Swedish King is startled as he is caught on camera secretly smoking during the Nobel Prize party of 1992
Second-hand Smoke redirects here, for the Sublime album, see Second-hand Smoke (album)

The practice of smoking tobacco originated among Native Americans in eastern North America, where tobacco is native. It was adopted by many Europeans following the colonization of the Americas. According to the World Health Organization, it is most common in east Asia, where as many as two-thirds of all adult males smoke tobacco. Because of concern over the health hazards of smoking, the practice has rapidly declined in recent years in the United States, Canada and western Europe. However, statistics show that at least a quarter of people even in these regions continue to smoke, and there is no evidence that smoking will become extinct.

Tobacco may be smoked in several forms, the most common being the cigarette, the cigar, and the pipe. Cigarette smoking is by far the most common. Pipes and cigars are less common, and some stereotype these as exclusively for men. Yet female cigar smokers have always existed and their proportion of the total is increasing. For example, Cheryl Robinson, director of Le Cigar at Tatou, estimates that 22% of her guests are women.[1] The hookah or water pipe is used in the Middle East.

In the case of cigarette smoking, smoke is inhaled into the lungs. Tobacco smoke contains the stimulant nicotine, which forms a strong physical and psychological chemical dependence (addiction). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, nicotine is a "very addictive drug" that can be "as addictive as heroin or cocaine."[2] Dependence is strongest when tobacco smoke is inhaled into the lungs and increases with quantity and speed of nicotine absorption.

Medical research has shown smoking to be a significant cause of human health problems, especially lung cancer, emphysema, and other disorders. In recent years and in many countries tobacco advertising has been regulated or restricted. In some countries smoking bans have come into effect.


History

File:Smokinghand.jpg
Cigarettes are the most common way of smoking tobacco

Tobacco smoking, using both pipes and cigars, was common to many Native American cultures of the Americas. It is depicted in the art of the Classic-era Maya civilization about 1,500 years ago. The Mayans smoked tobacco and also mixed it with lime and chewed it in a snuff-like substance. Among the Mayans tobacco was used as an all-purpose medicine, and was widely believed to have magical powers, being used in divinations and talismans. It was also burned as a sacrifice to the gods; a tobacco gourd was worn as a badge by midwives.

On October 12, 1492, Columbus was given "certain dry leaves" by the Arawaks, but threw them away. Rodrigo de Jerez and Luis de Torres, who had erroneously been searching the Khan of Cathay in Cuba, were the first Europeans to observe smoking, and Jerez also became the first recorded smoker outside the Americas. His neighbors in Spain were so frightened by the smoke billowing from his mouth and nostrils that they alerted the Spanish Inquisition, and Jerez was imprisoned for seven years. By the time he was released, smoking had become fashionable in Spain. In 1497 Ramon Pane who had been on the second voyage of Columbus describes the native use of tobacco in De Insularium Ribitus. Columbus in 1498 named the island of Tobago after the native tobacco pipe. Throughout the 16th century, the habit of smoking spread mainly among sailors. It was introduced to England by the crew of Sir John Hawkins in the 1560s. In 1559, Francisco Hernandez de Toledo introduced the plant to the court of Philippe II where it was at first only grown as an ornamental plant. Tobacco made an impact on European society only from the 1580s; in England, some returning Virginia colonists in 1586 caused a sensation by smoking tobacco from pipes. The tobacco plant in Elizabethan England was known as sotweed. The habit caught on, and in 1604, James I wrote his A Counterblaste to Tobacco, and multiplied import tax on tobacco by a factor of 40. Similarly, an imperial edict in China in 1610 prohibited use and cultivation of tobacco; from 1638, smokers could be punished by decapitation in China. During the Thirty Years War (1618-48), smoking Landsknechts spread tobacco use among the rural population of the European continent, records of smoking in Sweden date to 1630 and in Austria to 1650. In 1642, Urban VIII issued a papal bull against smoking in churches. In 1657, smoking was prohibited in Switzerland.

The cigar became immensely popular in England in the late 1820s. The cigarette appeared in 1828 in Spain, and enjoyed immediate success. The protagonist of Prosper Merimee's Carmen of 1845 is a girl working in a cigarette factory. But the cigarette remained less popular than the cigar or pipe until the early 20th century in most of Europe, when cheap mechanically made cigarettes became common. Queen Victoria hated tobacco, but after her death, in 1901, her son and successor Edward VII gathered his friends in a large drawing room at Buckingham Palace and entered with a lit cigar in his hand, announcing "Gentlemen, you may smoke", initiating the upper class British smoking room.

 
Smoking as part of a glamorous life was also conveyed through the media. This image shows actress Audrey Hepburn in the film Charade. (1963)

Tobacco companies succeeded in having their product included in military rations during World War I, where under the stress of warfare many soldiers took up smoking, becoming habitual smokers. After the war, during the Roaring Twenties, cigarette smoking was portrayed in advertising as part of a glamorous carefree lifestyle, and became socially acceptable for women as well. This image continued to be prevalent to some degree until the 1950s and 1960s, when the medical community and government (particularly in the United States) began a campaign to reduce the degree of smoking by showing how it damaged public health. In recent years tobacco smoking in many regions of the world has dramatically dropped.

Health effects

Main article: Health effects of tobacco smoking

Passive smoking

Main article: Passive smoking

Smoking cessation

Many of tobacco's health effects can be minimised through smoking cessation. The "British doctors study" [3] showed that those who stopped smoking before they reached 30 years of age lived almost as long as those who never smoked. It is also possible to help reduce the risks by reducing the frequency of smoking and by proper diet and exercise. Some research has indicated that some of the damage caused by smoking tobacco can be moderated with the use of antioxidants.

Smokers wanting to quit (or to temporarily abstain from) smoking can use a variety of nicotine-containing tobacco subsitutes, or nicotine replacement therapy products to temporarily lessen the physical withdrawal symptoms, the most popular being nicotine gum and lozenges. Nicotine patches are also used for smoking cessation. They can also use medications, such as bupropion (Zyban), that do not contain nicotine. Pharmaceutical assistance has been shown to increase cessation success rates by 50%. Discussing the problem with supportive people can also be helpful, both in person and through telephone quitlines, such as 1-800-QuitNow, in the U.S. In addition, there are lots of self-help books on the market, for example those by Allen Carr.

Moral aspects

Communal smoking of a sacred tobacco pipe was a universal ritual through Native America. Native Americans considered tobacco a sacred part of their religion. It was grown for ceremonial use and considered the ultimate sacred plant. Tobacco smoke was believed to carry prayers to the heavens. These rituals were performed, on average, no more than once a month, which differs widely from modern smoking, which is much more frequent and usually devoid of spiritual significance. The tobacco used during these rituals varied widely in potency -- the Nicotiana rustica species used in South America, for instance, has up to twice the nicotine content of the common North American N. tabacum.

In more modern times, even before the health risks of smoking were scientifically known, it was considered a filthy, harmful and immoral habit by some Christian preachers and social reformers. Tobacco was listed, along with drunkenness, gambling, cards, dancing and theater-going, in J.M. Judy's Questionable Amusements and Worthy Substitutes, which was published in 1904 by the Western Methodist Book Concern of Chicago. Judy wrote that "Tobacco dulls the mind. It does this not only by wasting the body, the physical basis of the mind, but it does it through habits of intellectual idleness, which the user of tobacco naturally forms. Whoever heard of a first-class loafer who did not eat the weed or burn it, or both?" In addition, he wrote, "Tobacco wastes the body" and "blunts the moral nature." But there was also the more direct concern that the poor would waste what little money they had on tobacco, instead of supporting their families, similar to a concern about alcohol in this era.

Judaism and smoking

The Jewish leader Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan (1838-1933) was one of the first Jewish authorities to speak out on smoking. He considered it a waste of time and saw the practice of people "borrowing" (pilfering) cigarettes from each other as morally questionable.

Most modern opposition to smoking, however, is based on moral arguments grounded on the unethical corporate practices of the tobacco industry or public health concerns. Some public interest groups are interested in controlling smoking-induced problems through political means; many consist of former smokers, health professionals, corporate responsibility advocates, school and community-based organizations, environmental groups or others.

The shift toward health-oriented moral concerns may be observed in Jewish approaches based on Jewish law (Halakha). For instance, when the link between smoking and health was still doubted, Rabbi Moses Feinstein wrote a responsum stating that smoking was permitted, though inadvisable. More recently, rabbinic responsa tend to argue that smoking is prohibited as self-endangerment under Jewish law and, moreover, smoking in indoor spaces should be a priori restricted as a type of damage to others. (See article on Jewish law and history on smoking.) Moral concerns about both self-injury are also prevalent in Catholic medical ethics on the grounds that people ought to be responsible stewards of the body as a gift from the divine. (Beyond religious ethics, Kantians also argue against self-injury as a necessary duty, consistent with the moral law or categorical imperative.)

Other Moral views

For another take on the moral aspects of smoking, see David Krogh's book "Smoking: the Artificial Passion" (Freeman 1992). Krogh documents a strong case for tobacco's uniqueness as a drug and accounts for the fact that in the past, many moralists who disapproved of "recreational" drugs approved of tobacco.

Krogh shows how tobacco is not like alcohol or so-called controlled substances including marijuana a recreational drug. He shows how smokers use tobacco to normalize their feelings within the narrow band necessary for functioning within an industrial society, where energy levels have to be carefully rationed according to expectations.

Krogh's analysis is unusual because it explains why workplaces prior to about 1980 actively encouraged smoking through the provision of ashtrays and vending machines. Krogh shows how cigarette smoking (unlike alcohol or marijuana, but perhaps like "speed" and "crystal meth") reconciles people to dull jobs by narrowing their physical, and hence psychological responses to fit within an expected range: not so depressed as to be subpar but not overenthusiastic or so angry as to cause fear in fellow employees.

This range is naturalized as normal but in fact all industrialized societies have had to train their lower-level cadres to dampen their response and it appears, given Krogh's narrative sociology, that smoking was morally neutral before about 1980 because it fulfilled this necessary function.

The zenith of smoking's moral approval in America was the Second World War and the postwar era where vast numbers of people had to operate technical apparatus while dampening down feelings of fear and despair which were normal given the facts of the war and subsequent period of "cold" war. But to the extent that since this era, metropolitan and developed countries had almost complete immunity from the immediacy of wartime conditions, smoking has probably fulfilled less of a socially necessary function in metropolitan societies...while in marginalized war zones it continues to enjoy positive approval.

As a narrative sociology, Krogh needs to be taken with a grain of salt. It may be that prior to modern restrictions on tobacco advertising, public relations was able to create the illusion that a harmful activity was morally neutral or even a mitzvah (Jewish commandment).

In many countries (including the United States, New Zealand, Canada, and Australia), it is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors. In Britain it is illegal to sell tobacco products to people under the age of 16 (However in Scotland, MSP Duncan McNeil proposes to raise the age limit to 18 in an attempt to reduce underage smoking); in 47 of the 50 United States the minimum age is 18 (Alabama, Alaska, and Utah raised the age to 19). Some countries have also legislated against giving tobacco products to (i.e. buying for) minors, and even against minors engaging in the act of smoking. Underlying such laws is the belief that people should make an informed decision regarding the risks of tobacco use.

Several Western countries have also put restrictions on cigarette advertising. In the United States, all television advertising of tobacco products has been prohibited since 1971. In Australia, the Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992[4] prohibits tobacco advertising in any form, with a very small number of exceptions (some international sporting events are excepted, but these exceptions will be revoked in 2006). Other countries have legislated particularly against advertising that appears to target minors.

In Alberta, Canada, smoking is illegal for people under the age of 18. If caught by the police, a person is subject to seizure of cigarettes and possibly a C$100 fine.

Some countries also impose legal requirements on the packaging of tobacco products. For example in the countries of the European Union and Australia, cigarette packs must be prominently labeled with one of various statements such as "SMOKING KILLS" and the even more extreme "SMOKING KILLS IN A SLOW AND PAINFUL WAY", accompanied by an explanation of the statement. See Australian tobacco labeling regulations[5]. Canada has also imposed labels upon cigarette packs warning smokers of the effects. These labels say things such as: Cigarettes Hurt Babies, Tobacco Kills, etc. and include images of the potential health effects of smoking. Cards are also inserted into cigarette packs in Canada. There are sixteen of them, and only one comes in a pack. They explain different methods of quitting smoking.

 
Attention grabbing signs often mark locations where smoking is not permitted.

In addition, some jurisdictions impose restrictions on where smoking is allowed. According to the American Nonsmokers' Rights Foundation[6], as of April 2004, the US states of Delaware, New York, Massachusetts, Florida, California, Connecticut, Maine, Texas, and Utah prohibit smoking in restaurants. Delaware, New York, California, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Maine also prohibit smoking in bars, except for designated smoking lounges. Similar restrictions have been proposed (though not yet implemented) for states such as Georgia, Oregon, New Jersey, Minnesota, Illinois, Maryland, and Colorado. Smoking has been banned in most workplaces and public buildings in the United States since the early 1990s. Washington state (relatively) has one of the most strict bans on smoking. The initiative will prohibit smoking in all indoor and outdoor public places, privately owned businesses, and restrict smoking within 25 feet of any opening into the building except tribal casinos. The smoking ban took effect on 8 December, 2005. (http://vote.wa.gov/election/2005/general/measures.aspx?a=901)

In France, it is illegal to sell cigarettes to minors under 16. Also prohibited are automatic cigarette-vending machines, as well as tobacco advertisements (with narrow exceptions such as inside licensed tobacco sellers). Smoking is prohibited by the "Evin" law in all indoor places used collectively, such public places, schools, and workplaces (including offices, shops, restaurants and bars) except in areas specifically designated for smokers; this law is however largely unenforced regarding smaller bars and restaurants.

From March 29, 2004, it became illegal in the Republic of Ireland to smoke in all enclosed places of work, with a very small number of exceptions. This included all bars and restaurants. Similar legislation came into force in Norway on June 1, 2004, New Zealand on December 10, 2004, Sweden on June 1, 2005, Spain on January 1, 2006 and will also take effect in Scotland from March,2006. However, there are no firm plans for the rest of the UK to follow suit. In 2004, Bhutan became the first country in the world to ban smoking and the selling of tobacco.

On 1 January 2005, the Australian state of Queensland imposed the strictest regulations of public smoking in Australia. New smoking regulations banned smoking 10 metres from a children's public playground, smoking on patrolled beaches, smoking within 4 metres from a non-residential building's entrance, and smoking at major sports stadiums. Strict laws were also imposed on smoking within eating and drinking venues. Television advertisements were shown by the government under the slogan "Nobody Smokes Here Anymore".

On 14 March 2005 Bangladesh banned smoking in public places.

On February 28 2005, an international treaty, the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control[7], took effect. The FCTC is the world's first public health treaty. Countries that sign on as parties agree to a set of common goals, minimum standards for tobacco control policy, and to cooperate in dealing with cross-border challenges such as cigarette smuggling. Currently the WHO declares that 4 billion people will be covered by the treaty, which includes 92 signatories[8]. Amongst other steps, signatories are to put together legislation that will protect people from being exposed to second-hand smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport, indoor public places and, as appropriate, other public places.

Recently some activists and officials have begun calling for a total ban on tobacco product sales and consumption altogether. see: smoking ban for more information.

Further reading

See also

History

  • The Tobacco Timeline by Gene Borio
  • "Legacy Tobacco Documents Library (LTDL)". November 8. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help) 7 million documents related to advertising, manufacturing, marketing, sales, and scientific research of tobacco products.

Prevention & Self help

Smokers' Rights Sites

Statistics & Studies

Notes

  • Joint Committee on Smoking and Health. Smoking and health: physician responsibility; a statement of the Joint Committee on Smoking and Health. Chest 1995; 198:201- 208
  • Boffetta, P., Agudo, A., Ahrens, W., Benhamou, E., Benhamou, S., Darby, S.C., Ferro, G., Fortes, C., Gonzalez, C.A., Jockel, K.H., Krauss, M., Kreienbrock, L., Kreuzer, M., Mendes, A., Merletti, F., Nyberg, F., Pershagen, G., Pohlabeln, H., Riboli, E., Schmid, G., Simonato, L., Tredaniel, J., Whitley, E., Wichmann, H.E., Saracci, R. 1998. Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 90:1440-1450.
  • Osvaldo P. Almeida, Gary K. Hulse, David Lawrence and Leon Flicker, "Smoking as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: contrasting evidence from a systematic review of case-control and cohort studies," Addiction, Volume 97, Issue 1, Page 15 - January 2002.
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  2. ^ "Nicotine: A Powerful Addiction." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [9]
  3. ^ Ness, R., Grisso, J., Hirschinger, N., Markovic, N., Shaw, L., Day, N., and Kline, J. (1999). Cocaine and Tobacco Use and the Risk of Spontaneous Abortion. New England J. Med. 340:333-339; Oncken, C., Kranzler, H., O'Malley, P., Gendreau, P., Campbell, W. A. (2002). The Effect of Cigarette Smoking on Fetal Heart Rate Characteristics. Obstet Gynecol 99: 751-755.
  4. ^ Venners, S.A., X. Wang, C. Chen, L. Wang, D. Chen, W. Guang, A. Huang, L. Ryan, J. O'Connor, B. Lasley, J. Overstreet, A. Wilcox, and X. Xu. (2004). Paternal Smoking and Pregnancy Loss: A Prospective Study Using a Biomarker of Pregnancy Am J Epidemiol 159: 993-1001.
  5. ^ "Blackwell Synergy - Cookie Absent (See above)". 2005-12-18.
  6. ^ Template:News reference
  7. ^ "Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors -- Doll et al., 10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE -- BMJ". 2005-12-18.
  8. ^ "Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors -- Doll et al., 10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE -- BMJ (See above)". 2005-12-18.
  9. ^ "http://pacer.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinion.pdf/982407.P.pdf" (PDF). 2005-12-18. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  10. ^ "http://monographs.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol83/02-involuntary.html". 2005-12-18. {{cite web}}: External link in |title= (help)
  11. ^ "Cancer Spectrum: Boffetta et al., pp. 1440-1450". 2005-12-18.
  12. ^ "Entrez PubMed". 2005-12-18.
  13. ^ "Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992". 2005-12-18.
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