Wikipedia

Manually coded language

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Ntennis (talk | contribs) at 07:44, 16 January 2006 (→Cued Speech: system -> gestures). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Manually Coded Languages (MCLs) are representations of spoken languages in a gestural-visual form; that is, "sign language" versions of spoken languages. Unlike the sign languages that have evolved naturally in Deaf communities over hundreds of years, Manually Coded Languages are the invention of hearing people. In recent times, they have been mainly used in deaf education and by sign language interpreters.

History

It is unknown when the first attempts were made to represent a spoken language with gesture. Indeed, some have speculated that spoken languages may have evolved from sign languages, and there may be undocumented cases in history when spoken and signed modes of a language existed side by side. It is not uncommon for people to develop gestures to replace words or phrases in contexts where speech is not possible or not permitted, such as in a television studio, but these are usually limited in scope and rarely develop into complete representations of a spoken language. One of the most elaborated examples of this kind of auxiliary manual system is Walpiri Sign Language, a complete signed mode of spoken Warlpiri which was developed by an Indigenous community in central Australia due to cultural proscriptions against speech.

In seventh century England, Bede, a Benedictine monk, proposed a system for representing the letters of the Latin alphabet on the fingers. Monastic Sign Languages used throughout medieval Europe used manual alphabets as well as signs, and were capable of representing at least the written form of a spoken language, if one had enough patience. Aside from the commonly understood rationale of observing "vows of silence", they also served as mnemonics (memory aids) for preachers. These manual alphabets began to be used to teach the deaf children of royalty in 17th century Spain, marking the beginning of the era of Manually Coded Languages in deaf education. Such alphabets are in widespread use today by signing deaf communities for representing words or phrases of the spoken language used in their part of the world.

The earliest known attempt to develop a complete signed mode of a language which could be used to teach deaf children was by the Abbé de l'Épée, an educator from 18th century France. While the Deaf community already used a sign language (now known as Old French Sign Language), Épée thought it must be primitive, and set about designing a complete visual-gestural system to represent the concepts of religion and law that he wanted to impart to his pupils. His system of signes méthodiques (known in English as "Methodical Signs") was quite idiosyncratic, and although it wasn't a strict representation of French, its success laid the groundwork for the "signed spoken languages" of today. The real proliferation of such systems occurred in the latter half of the 20th century, and by the 1980s, Manually Coded Languages were the dominant form of communication used by teachers and interpreters in classrooms with deaf students in many parts of the world. Any sign language "interpreting" seen on television in the 1970s and 1980s was actually a transliteration of a spoken language into a manually coded form.

The emerging recognition of sign languages in recent times has curbed the growth of Manually Coded Languages, and in many places, interpreting and educational services now favor the use of the natural sign languages of the Deaf community. In some parts of the world, MCLs continue to be developed and supported by state institutions; a contemporary example is Arabic Sign Language. Some MCL systems (such as Paget Gorman SIgned Speech) have survived by shifting their focus from deaf education to people with other kinds of communication needs.

Criticisms

The use of MCLs is controversial, and has been opposed since Épée's time by "oralists" who believe Deaf people should speak, lipread and use hearing aids rather than sign — and on the other side, from defenders of Deaf culture who resist attempts to supplant their community language with the language of the dominant (Hearing) culture. Members of the signing Deaf community usually find MCLs "unnatural" and "cumbersome", but elements of these systems have also had an influence on deaf sign languages (see Contact Sign).

Studies in the U.S. have shown that Signed English is usually applied incompletely in classrooms — Hearing teachers tend to "cut corners" by not signing word endings, articles and conjunctions, possibly because they slow down the pace of the teacher's natural speech. The result is a kind of "Pidgin Sign English" which lacks the grammatical complexity of both English and American Sign Language.

Major approaches

There have been many different approaches to manually coding spoken languages. Some consist of fingerspelling everything, a technique sometimes known in English as the "Rochester method" after Rochester School for the Deaf in New York where it was used from 1878 until the 1940s. While most MCLs are slower than spoken or sign languages, this method is especially so, and in modern times is generally considered not to be accessible to children. However, some deafblind people still communicate primarily using this method. Most methods can accommodate Simultaneous Communication — that is, signing and apeaking at the same time — although the natural pace of speech may need to be slowed down at times.

A unique system that was widespread in British deaf education from the 1960s to the 1980s is the Paget Gorman Sign System. Developed in Britain 1930s, it uses 37 basic signs and 21 standard hand postures to represent a large vocabulary of English words, word endings and verb tenses.

Signed spoken languages

These systems ("Signed English", "Signed German" and so on) were the vehicle for the world-wide explosion of MCLs in deaf education in the second half of the 20th century, and are what is generally meant by the phrase "Manually Coded Language" today. They aim to be a word-for-word representation of the spoken language (especially its written form), and accordingly require the development of an enormous vocabulary. They usually acheive this by taking signs ("lexicon") from the local deaf sign language as a base, then adding specially-created signs for words and word endings that don't exist in the deaf sign language, often using "initialisations" and spelling. Thus "Signed English" in America (based on ASL) has a lexicon quite different to "Signed English" in Britain (based on BSL), as well as the Signed Englishes of Ireland, Australasia and South Africa.

Cued Speech

Another widespread approach, Cued Speech, is a visual representation of the phonemes (sounds) of a spoken language. As the entire set of phonemes for a spoken language is small (English has 35 to 45, depending on the dialect), the system is relatvely easy to adapt for other languages. As of 2006, 60 languages or dialects have Cued Speech systems, though many are not in use or in marginal use.

Cued Speech can be seen as a manual supplement to lipreading. A limited number of handshapes (representing consonants) and locations near the mouth (representing vowels) differentiate between sounds not distinguishable from on the lips. When viewed together with lip patterns, the gestures render all phonemes of the spoken language intelligible visually. It not traditionally referred to as a Manually Coded Language, and is in many ways more akin to fingerspelling than to the signed spoken languages above.

List of manually coded languages

See also

References

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manually_coded_language&oldid=35374775"