French fried potatoes, commonly known as French fries or fries (North America) or chips (United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth) are pieces of potato that have been cut into batons and deep fried.
Where 'chips' is the common term, 'French fries' usually refers to the thin variant (U.S. 'shoe string potatoes'). In North America 'chips' usually means potato chips (called 'crisps' in the UK), which are deep-fried thin slices of potato. In Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and some areas of the United Kingdom, 'chips' can mean either potato chips, or French fried potatoes which are also called 'hot chips' or (in South Africa) 'slap chips' (IPA [slup]; 'slup' is Afrikaans for 'soft').
History
Many possible claims as to the origin of 'French fried potatoes' exist.
Culinary origin of the term
The straightforward explanation of the term is that it means 'potatoes fried in the French manner': the verb 'to fry' can mean either sautéing or deep-fat frying, while French 'frire' unambiguously means deep frying. Thomas Jefferson, famous for serving French dishes, referred to fried potatoes in this way.[1]
It is sometimes suggested that the verb 'to french' originally meant to julienne-cut.[2] But this term refers specifically to trimming the meat off the shanks of chops[3] and is not attested until after 'French fried potatoes' had appeared.
Belgium
The Belgians are noted for claiming that "French" fries are in fact Belgian, but definitive evidence for the origin has not been presented. Whether they invented them, 'frites' quickly became the national snack and a substantial part of both national dishes — making the Belgians their largest consumers[citation needed] and to Europe at least their "symbolic" creators.
The Belgian historian Jo Gerard recounts that potatoes were already fried in 1680, in the area of "the Meuse valley between Dinant and Liège, Belgium. The poor inhabitants of this region allegedly had the custom of accompanying their meals with small fried fish, but when the river was frozen and they were unable to fish, they cut potatoes lengthwise and fried them in oil to accompany their meals."[4]
The term 'frites' lends itself to puns with the name 'Fritz'. In 1857, the newspaper Courrier de Verviers devotes an article to Fritz, a Belgian entrepreneur selling French fries at fairs, calling him "le roi des pommes de terre frites". In 1862 a fries shack (frietkot, see below) called "Max en Fritz" was established near Het Steen in Antwerp.[5]
Another Belgian legend claims that the term 'French' was introduced when British or American soldiers arrived in Belgium during World War I, and consequently tasted Belgian fries. The supposedly called them 'French' as it was the official language of the Belgian army at that time.[6][7] The term 'French fried potatoes' had in fact already become in use long before the War.
France
Many attribute the dish to France — though in France they are often thought of as Belgian — and offer as evidence a notation by U.S. President Thomas Jefferson. "Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small slices" are noted in a manuscript in Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801) and the recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef, Honoré Julien. In those years and until Waterloo in 1815 however, France also encompassed what in 1830 would become Belgium.[8] In addition, from 1813[9] on, recipes for what can be described as French fries, occur in popular American cookbooks. Recipes for fried potatoes in French cookbooks date back at least to Menon's Les soupers de la cour (1755). Eliza Warren's cookbook The economical cookery book for housewives, cooks, and maids-of-all-work, with hints to the mistress and servant used the term "French fried potatoes" in around 1856.[10]
It is true that eating potatoes was promoted in France by Parmentier, but he did not mention fried potatoes in particular. And the name of the dish in languages other than English does not refer to France; indeed, in French, they are simply called 'pommes de terres frites' or, more commonly, simply 'pommes frites' or 'frites'.
During the controversy over 'Freedom fries', French people from around the world repeated the story that the food was actually Belgian, or at least, a Belgian speciality.
Spain
Some claim that the dish was invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared via the New World colonies, and then spread to the area that is now Belgium, which was then under Spanish rule.
The Spanish claim for originating French fries claims the first appearance of the recipe to have been in Galicia, where it was used as an accompaniment for fish dishes, and from which it spread to the rest of the country and then to Belgium.[citation needed]
Prof. Paul Ilegems, curator of the Friet-museum in Antwerp, believes that Saint Teresa of Ávila fried the first chips, referring also to the tradition of frying in Mediterranean cuisine.[11]
United Kingdom
The British also claim the 'chip' was invented in Yorkshire in the 1700s where it is believed that the potato was cut to the distinctive shape so that they may be lined up between two pieces of bread to make a chip butty.[citation needed]
United States' world-wide influence
French fries have been widely popularized world-wide by fast-food chains like McDonald's and Burger King. This came about through the introduction of the frozen French fry invented by the J.R. Simplot Company in the early 1950s. Before the handshake deal between Ray Kroc of McDonald's and Jack Simplot of the J.R. Simplot Company, potatoes were hand-cut and peeled in the restaurants, but the frozen product reduced preparation time and aided the expansion of the McDonald's franchise. One of the few fast-food chains which still prepares fresh potatoes on the premises is In-N-Out Burger.[citation needed]
Recent developments
Frozen French fries most often have been pre-fried — it is not unheard of for these to be baked instead of fried — and are widely available in supermarkets.
Big-brand fast-food restaurants are increasingly serving deep-fried lengths of extruded potato starch, instead of potato batons, as fries.[citation needed]
'Express fries' are a derivation that are quickly made by slicing potatoes, spraying with a cooking spray or a light layer of cooking oil, then microwaving for a few minutes.[citation needed]
Food associations
Besides being a popular snack in themselves, French fried potatoes are often the standard accompaniment to other foods:
- In Belgium, steamed mussels: moules-frites. After missing the popular dish for a few months, in summer the Belgians rush to restaurants and fishmongers when the mussels arrive, typically from Zeeland. Another national dish is their bifteck-frites in French or biefstuk-friet in Dutch, which may disregard these terms' English language origin as beef steak and — for aficionados — be horse steak; the steak-fries are plainly seasoned or served with one of the sauces the French are praised for, and usually a simple salad, in restaurants or at home.
- In France, grilled steak: steak-frites.
- In Spain, fried eggs: "Huevos con patatas"
- In the United Kingdom, fried fish: fish and chips.
- In the United States, hamburgers.
- In Germany, curried sausage: Currywurst
- In Sweden, hamburgers, hot dogs, and kebab
Variants
French fries have numerous variants, from 'thick-cut' to 'shoestring', 'joe joes', 'crinkle', 'curly', and 'waffle-cut' and many other names. They can also be coated with breading and spices to create 'seasoned fries', or cut thickly with the skin left on to create 'potato wedges' or without the skin to create 'steak fries', essentially the American equivalent of the British 'chip'. Sometimes French fries are cooked in the oven as a final step in the preparation (having been coated with oil during preparation at the factory): these are often sold frozen, and are called 'oven fries'.
In France, the thick-cut fries are called 'pommes Pont-Neuf', about 10mm. Thinner variants are "pommes allumettes" (matchstick potatoes), 3-4mm, "pommes pailles" (straw potatoes), somewhat thinner, and "pommes gaufrette" (waffle potatoes), cross cut. The two-bath technique is standard. (Bocuse)
In the British Isles, Australia, and elsewhere, the term French fries is only used by fast-food restaurants serving narrow-cut (shoestring) fries. Traditional chips in the United Kingdom are usually cut much thicker, typically between 3/8 and ½ inches square in cross section and cooked twice, making them less crunchy on the outside and fluffier on the inside. Since the surface-to-volume ratio is lower, they have a lower fat content. Chips are part of the popular British takeaway dish fish and chips. In Australia, the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand, very few towns or villages are without a chip shop.
According to American culinary celebrity Alton Brown, Belgian pommes frites are usually fried in horse fat. Others maintain that traditionally, ox fat was used, although now nut oil is usually preferred for health reasons. Belgian fries must be fried twice, and about 10-13mm thick. Fries with Mayonnaise is a fastfood classic in Belgium, often eaten without any side orders. Even the smallest Belgian town has a frietkot (a Dutch word literally meaning 'fries shack' which has also been adopted by the French speaking part of the country in addition to the French friterie; two alternate Dutch forms are frituur, from French friture, and frietkraam, which means about the same as frietkot).
Boardwalk fries, are brine soaked fresh-cut potatoes, that are quickly deep-fried in 100% peanut oil, served in paper buckets, sprinkled lightly with salt and malt vinegar. Perhaps one of the most famous vendors of boardwalk fries is Thrasher's French Fries of Ocean City, Maryland, United States, founded in 1929 by J.T. Thrasher – which stand often serves the fries with Old Bay crab seasoning. The term "Boardwalk Fries" was registered by brothers Dave and Fran DiFerdinando as a franchising company trademark in 1982. In 2006, they opened two Boardwalk Fries locations in Baltimore's Oriole Park at Camden Yards baseball field.
Cooking
Some home cooks who prepare French fries from scratch, cook them a single time in a generous amount of oil pre-heated to a temperature around 375 °F (190 °C) until they are golden and slightly crisp. The method recommended by most cookbooks, and used by many restaurants, especially those reputed to have excellent French fries, cook them in two stages: first at a temperature at around 350 °F (177 °C), until the fries are nearly cooked but still limp and pale; then, after they have been removed from the oil and allowed to cool, at a higher temperature, generally around 375 °F (190 °C), until they are golden and crisp, which normally takes less than a minute. A third method, attributed to the celebrated French chef Joël Robuchon for the home cook, is to put the sliced potatoes into a saucepan with just enough cold oil in it to cover the potatoes, then cook them over high heat until golden, stirring occasionally.[12] This chef mainly uses a more traditional style after blanching the cut potatoes in boiling water.[13]
The Belgian way of cooking frites is generally in two stages.
- First fries are 'pre-fried' ('voorgebakken' in Dutch) for about 6 to 10 minutes in oil or – traditionally – beef fat preheated to about 130 to 160 °C, to cook the inner part without burning the outside, while most of the moisture is driven out. Then they are taken out, tossed to avoid clumping, and generally allowed to cool down. This intermediate product can be either frozen for 'instant' deep-frying later, or as several batches of 'pre-fried' fries prepared (e.g., when fries stands are opened for the day, or at home ahead of a company of guests) for rapid frying and almost simultaneously serving later.
- The second stage involves frying for about two to four minutes in oil or beef fat preheated to 175 to 195 °C (as high as the oil or fat can safely stand: a too high temperature breaks it down to rather poisonous compounds). The (cool) batches must be small enough relative to the quantity of oil or fat for its preheated temperature to stay sufficiently high already during the first half minute of the frying process. Generally the cook is guided more by the color of the product than by timing ; and by experience with the particular variety of potato. As rule-of-the-thumb one might wait till the fries start to float near the surface. Once more the fries are sturdily tossed and preferably also kind of centrifuged (vigorously swerving the batch around in a wide recipient, in the shape of the base of a cone upside down, held in front of the cook's belly – common for professional batch frying), and shortly tossed again – thus removing excessive fattiness and preventing loss of the outer crispness.
- Ideally, the fries have a golden to gold-brown appearance and a bite through the crispy outside reveals a soft inside. For a given depth of the crispy crust, the balance with the soft cooked potato inside is determined by the thickness; no less than 13 mm traditionally to 10 mm towards the end of the 20th century, before frying, are typical for Belgium. Some restaurants may cut as thin as 5 mm. In a good professional friterie stand, the cut is done in a single action by driving the whole peeled potato standing vertically, through a horizontal raster of crosswise sharp blades. This easily removable (for cleaning) and exchangeable set of blades defines the thickness of the frites.
Typically for U.S. fast-food restaurants, is a preparation prior to cooking:
- In an interview, Burger King president Donald Smith said that his chain's fries are sprayed with a sugar solution shortly before being packaged and shipped to individual outlets. The sugar carmelizes in the cooking fat, producing the golden color customers expect. Without it, the fries would be nearly the same color outside as inside: pasty white. Smith believes that McDonald's also sugar-coats its fries.[14]
Accompaniments
French fries are almost always salted just after cooking. They are then served with a variety of condiments, notably tomato sauce, ketchup, curry, curry ketchup (mildly hot mix of the former), hot or chili sauce, mustard, mayonnaise, bearnaise sauce, tartar sauce, tzatziki, garlic sauce, fry sauce, ranch dressing, barbecue sauce, gravy, brown sauce, vinegar (especially malt vinegar), lemon, piccalilli, pickled cucumber, gherkins, very small pickled onions, or honey.[15][16]
In the Netherlands, (where fries are sold in snackbars), peanut sauce is also popular (also called satay sauce, after the Malayan meat sate on which the same sauce is used). The Dutch also use the word mayonnaise to refer to frietsaus (fries-sauce) a thicker, less acidic sauce made specially to accompany French fries (as made famous in the film Pulp Fiction). Another interesting combination is Patatje Oorlog (Dutch for: French Fries War), which is French fries with a variety of sauces, a variety that differs from region to region, and even from one snackbar to another. While it sometimes means mayonnaise (or rather, frietsaus), peanut sauce and chopped raw onions, in other places it means the fries are accompanied with all condiments available. Dutch snackbars typically offer at least 8 condiments or combinations of them (the condiments are never free in the Netherlands), but some serve up to 40 different styles. The Dutch eat their fries mostly with the famous Dutch snacks such as the kroket and frikandel.
The Dutch vending points are often very similar to the ones in Belgium, though each country has a few typical accompaniments, else usually different and confusing names for them in an otherwise for the Netherlands and Flanders common language. There are pickled herring, beef or (now rarely) horsemeat stews, goulash, a wide variety of deep fried meats as chicken legs, beef or pork sticks, minced beef and/or pork and/or chicken and/or turkey in all shapes (balls, sticks, sausages) mixed with a dosage of fat and condiments to one's preference, usually factory made. An example of an additional on-the-spot preparation is sometimes in Flanders called mammoet speciaal (mammoth special), a large curryworst (frikandel in the Netherlands) deep fried and cut so as to put chopped onion in the V-shaped length and dressed with mayonnaise (as real as factory made can be, not frietsaus) and (curry-)ketchup. The earlier of now many available sauses, are mayonnaise, and one called pickles which is actually piccalilly.[17][16]
In the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, traditional chips are short and fat, and accompanied by salt and malt vinegar. More recently, particularly in the North of England and Wales, gravy and curry sauce are available from some chip shops. In Northern England, Scotland and South Wales, 'chips, cheese and gravy' is a popular dish, while in the South 'cheesy chips' (chips with grated cheddar thickly sprinkled on) are popular. In Britain and Ireland, the term french fries refers exclusively to the long thin version served in fast food establishments.
In Ireland, chips are served with hot mustard, but Thai chilli sauce is gaining in popularity. Fish and chips or kebab are common.
In Australia, chicken salt (seasoned salt) is widely used in preference to plain salt.
In Germany, accompaniments are usually limited to ketchup and mayonnaise. The two are often combined, which is commonly called Pommes rot-weiß ("fries red and white"). Although mustard may also be available at the same fast food stand to serve with Bratwurst, it is used to accompany French Fries less commonly. Curry sauce is sometimes used as a condiment. During Gerhard Schröder's term, some Germans jokingly referred to a combination of salted French fries ("Pommes", or "Fritten") with ketchup and a large Currywurst as Kanzlerplatte (Chancellor's Dish) because Schröder was said to prefer this kind of fast food. Other "nicknames" are "Bottroper Platte" (Bottrop plate), referring to the city of Bottrop in the Ruhr area or "Pommes Schranke" (Fries "barrier"), referring to the common red and white markings on barriers.
In Denmark the traditional accompaniment to French fries is remoulade sauce.
Throughout Canada, white vinegar is a popular condiment for French fries. No other country is known to so enjoy white vinegar (as opposed to malt or other vinegars) on its fries. All major Canadian fast-food outlets provide white vinegar packets next to their ketchup packets in their stores, and all restaurants keep white vinegar on their tables. That is not to say that the use of malt vinegar is not common – particularly amongst those of English heritage. In most traditional 'fish & chips' shops in Canada, malt vinegar is more prevalent. However, ketchup is also commonly used on French fries in Canada.
In the Canadian provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick, French fries are the main component of a dish called 'poutine': a mixture of French fries with fresh cheese curds, covered with a hot gravy, optionally with browned ground beef and/or a vegetable such as green peas mixed in. This dish is most popular in Quebec fast food chains such as La Belle Province, and Lafleur Restaurants. (A similar variant, 'disco fries' is found in several New England cities.) In Newfoundland, Canada 'Newfie fries' comprise French fries topped with turkey stuffing made with summer savoury (called dressing),and gravy.
In the United States, fries are sometimes coated with melted cheese, called cheese fries. Often, this is in combination with chili. 'Cheese fries' (or, more commonly, 'disco Fries' – with brown gravy and mozzarella) are a staple of New Jersey diners. Variations of cheese fries include fries covered with melted cheese, usually Cheez Whiz, mozzarella, Swiss cheese, or garlic and cheese fries (cheese with garlic mayonnaise). The American fast-food restaurants Checkers and Rallys serve "fully loaded fries": seasoned fried covered in melted American cheese, ranch dressing and bacon bits. In some regions french fries may be dipped in various milkshakes, often Frostys.
Mid-Atlantic States often put Old Bay Seasoning on fries. These are sometimes referred to as "beach fries".[18]
In Utah, and the surrounding area, French fries are often served with fry sauce, a mixture of spices, mayonnaise, and ketchup.
In California, especially San Diego, french fries are covered with cheese, carne asada, sour cream, and guacamole. These are called carne asada fries and are served almost exclusively in taco shops.
In the Midsouth, fries are often served with white, or country gravy.
In the Philippines, they are often served with a sprinkling of powdered flavors, primarily cheese, sour cream or barbecue. In some fast food chains, these are topped with cheese sauce and minced bacon.
In Vietnam, restaurants are usually found serving fries with sugar over a dollop of soft butter.
In Pakistan, they are served on the street with a mint-cilantro sauce, pudina ki chutney.
Health aspects
French fries may contain a large amount of fat (usually saturated) from frying and from some condiments or topping. Some researchers have suggested that the high temperatures used for frying such dishes may have results harmful to health (see acrylamides). In the United States about ¼ of vegetables consumed are prepared as French fries and are believed to contribute to widespread obesity when trans fats are present. Frying French fries in beef tallow, the traditional but recently discarded McDonald's recipe, adds saturated fat to the diet. Replacing tallow with tropical oils such as palm oil simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. Replacing tallow with partially hydrogenated oil reduces cholesterol but adds trans fat.[19][20][21]
Freedom fries
- Full article: Freedom fries
On March 11, 2003, following the example set by a restaurant in Beaufort, North Carolina,[22] the cafeteria menus in the three United States House of Representatives office buildings changed the name of French fries to freedom fries in a symbolic culinary rebuke of France stemming from anger over that country's opposition to the United States government's invasion of Iraq. As of August 2, 2006, they were back on the menu as French fries in the United States House of Representatives.[23]
As a joke, many Americans had begun to refer to other things with "French" in their name as "freedom", such as "freedom bread" instead of French bread, "freedom toast" instead of French toast, "freedom kiss" instead of French kiss and "freedom tickler" instead of French tickler.
Legal issues
In 1994, the well-known owner of Stringfellows nightclub in London, Peter Stringfellow, took exception to McCain Foods' use of the name "Stringfellows" for a brand of long thin French fries and took them to court. He lost the case (Stringfellows v McCain Food (GB) Ltd (1994)) on the basis that there was no connection in the public mind between the two uses of the name, and therefore McCain's product would not have caused the nightclub to lose any sales [2] [3].
In June 2004, the United States Department of Agriculture, with the advisement of a federal district judge from Beaumont, Texas, classified batter-coated French fries as a vegetable under the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act. Although this move was mostly for trade reasons (French fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a "processed food"), this received significant media attention partially due to the documentary Super Size Me.
Notes
- ^
Fishwick, Marshall W (1998). The Savant as Gourmet. Journal of Popular Culture. pp. 32:11:55. Cite error: The
<ref>tag has too many names (see the help page). - ^ Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 10th ed.
- ^ "to French: to prepare, as a chop, by partially cutting the meat from the shank and leaving bare the bone so as to fit it for convenient handling" (Oxford English Dictionary)
- ^
"Specialities: Frites". Belgian Federal Government.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Ilegems, Paul. "De Frietkotcultuur"
- ^
"Geschiedenis van de friet". Fritkot Max.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^
Creemers, Jochen & Willekens, Kurt. "Geschiedenis". De Frietsite (JC webdesign) © 2003-2004.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^
Ebeling, Charles (2005-10-31). "French fried: From Monticello to the Moon, A Social, Political and Cultural Appreciation of the French Fry". The Chicago Literary Club.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Ude, Louis. "The French Cook"
- ^ p. 88 at Google books. The publication date is uncertain, perhaps 1859[1]
- ^
Schoetens, Marc (December 13, 2005). "Heilige Teresa bakte de eerste frieten" (in Dutch). De Morgen.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Steingarten, Jeffrey (1997). The Man Who Ate Everything. Vintage Books. pp. 409–411. ISBN 0-375-70202-4.
- ^
Whittington, Richard ©. "The Perfect Chip". Charlie Hicks Greengrocer, Hay on Wye, Hereford, UK.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ Poundstone, William (1983). Big Secrets. William Morrow and Co. p. 23. ISBN 0-688-04830-7.
- ^
"Side Dishes: International French Fries". Food Services of America.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^ a b
"Les sauces servies traditionnellement avec les frites en Belgique: Les pickles belges (Belgian Pickles)". belgourmet.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "belgourmet" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^
Franquin (1973). "Gaston Lagaffe aka Guust Flater: Gare aux gaffes d'un gars gonflé" (jpg). Editions Dupuis. p. last.
en crocquant quelques frites... Hmum.. Délicieuses...avec des pickles. (while eating some fries... Hmm.. Delightful... with piccalilly [Belgian pickles])
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) (publication date showing a sause, outside Belgium rarely used with fries, to have been typical before far more kinds became available) - ^
"Sunset Grille Menu". Sunset Grille.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^
"Fats and Cholesterol". Harvard School of Public Health.
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"Trans: The Phantom Fat". Nutrition Action Healthletter (Center for Science in the Public Interest).
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Mayo Clinic Staff (22 Jun2006). "Dietary fats: Know which types to choose © 1998-2006". Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER).
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^
"French fries off US menu". BBC News Online. 20 Feb2003.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - ^
"French fries back on US House of Representatives menu". BBC News. 2 Aug2006.
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References
- Bocuse, Paul. La Cuisine du marché, Paris, 1992.
- Tebben, Maryann. ""French" Fries: France's Culinary Identity from Brillat-Savarin to Barthes (essay)". online journal Convivium Artium: Food Representation in Literature, Film, and the Arts © 2006. Deparment of Modern Languages and Literatures, University of Texas at San Antonio.
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External links
- The Perfect Chip by Richard Whittington
