Jewish name

Onomastic practices in Judaism have historically varied, encompassing throughout the centuries several different traditions.

Early Biblical Era

The name conferred upon a person in early Biblical times was generally connected with some circumstance of that person's birth: several of Jacob's sons are recorded as having received their names in this manner (Genesis 30). Generally, it was the mother who chose the name, as in the account of Jacob's sons, but there were occasions on which the father chose the child's name, for instance in Genesis 16:15, 17:19, and 21:2. Occasionally other persons than the parents were the name-givers, as in the cases of Moses (Exodus 2:10) and Solomon (II Samuel 12:25).

In early Biblical times it appears to have been the custom to confer the name immediately upon birth, as among modern Arabs, but in later periods a name was given to the boy at circumcision (compare Luke 1:59 and 2:21). Before the Babylonian exile it was not common practice to name children after their relatives, even in the royal family; none of the twenty-one kings of Judah was named after a predecessor, or after David, the founder of the dynasty. On the other hand, a son of Jonathan and of King Saul were each named Meribaal (II Samuel 21:7 and following.) Instead of repeating the same name as an ancestor, however, it was customary to make use of one of the elements of the family name; thus Ahitub has two sons, Ahijah and Ahimelech. Three of Saul's family members have the element ba'al (in the altered form bosheth) in their names. As a consequence of this avoidance of repetition, a single name was as a rule sufficient to identify a person. It is only in the later stages of Hebrew tradition that it was found necessary to give the name of the father in order to identify the son, as, for instance, in the case of Jaazaniah ben Shaphan (Ezekiel 8:11).

Significance

It is probable that, as among other ancient societies, a certain magical importance was attributed to the name^[1][2]. A very large majority of the 2,800 personal names (referring to about 15,000 persons) contained in the Old Testament convey a special meaning, apart from their personal application. The meanings of the remainder have been obscured either through textual corruption or insufficient current understanding of comparative philology. In addition, a considerable number of these names are probably eponyms. There is little doubt that this applies to the names of the Israelite clans, each of which was assumed to be descended from the descendants of Jacob, given in Numbers 26.

Names may be derived from the order of birth, as in the cases of Akkub and Jacob, whose names probably mean "posthumous." Jephthah implies "first-born," as does Becher, while names like Manasseh, Nahum, and Nehemiah refer probably to children who have come to take the place of others that have died in childhood. The idea of relationship is expressed in Ahab, probably originally Ahiab (Jeremiah 29:21).

Personal peculiarities may give rise to a name, as Laban ("white," or "blond"), Gideon ("maimed"), or Harim ("with pierced nose"). Mental qualities may be referred to, as in the names Job ("assailant") and Barak ("lightning"). Owing to the want of specialization in Jewish social life there are no trade-names in the Bible corresponding to the Smith and Müller of England and Germany; but names taken from objects are found, especially among females. The name Rebekah (Rivka) seems to be derived from a sheep-rope, Peninnah from coral, and Keren-happuch from a box of face-paint. Abstract names seem to be applied especially to women, as Manoah ("rest") and Michal ("power").

Jacobs gives eighty-four names (applied to 120 different persons) derived from animals and plants^[3]. Leah is probably the name for gazelle and Rachel for ewe (appropriate since both are considered matriarchs). Oreb ("raven") and Ze'ev ("wolf") were princes of the Midianites (although Ze'ev was also an appellation of Benjamin); and Caleb ("the dog") was the founder of the chief Judean tribe. Achbor ("mouse") and Shaphan ("coney") also occur. Jonah is the equivalent of "dove," Zipporah of "bird," and Deborah of "bee." Esther's Jewish name, Hadassah, means "myrtle." An attempt has been made by Robertson Smith and others to find in these and other names traces of totemism among the ancient Hebrews.

Compound names

A distinctive characteristic of Bible onomastics is the frequency of composite names, which form at times even complete sentences, as in the case of Isaiah's son Shear-jashub ("the remnant shall return"). Hephzibah means "my pleasure is in her." Sometimes these composites have a preposition as their first element, as Bishlam (= "with peace"; Ezra 4:7) and Lemuel ("belonging to God"; Proverbs 31:4); but in the majority of cases these composite names are theophorous, referring to, or actually mentioning, the Deity, either by the name of YHWH or by the name of El. The specific name of the Jewish God appears at the beginning as Jo- and at the end as -iah; thus, Jonathan is a doublet of Elnathan, and Joezer ("YHWH is help") is the same as Joazar ("YHWH has helped"). A whole theology may be deduced from the large number of Biblical names referring to acts, actions, and attributes of the deity; thus: God "gives" (Elnathan, Jonathan); "increases the family" (Eliasaph); "is gracious" (Elhanan, Hananeel); "has mercy" (Jerahmeel); "blesses" (Barachel, Berechiah); "loves" (Jedidiah, Eldad); "helps" (Eleazar, Azareel, Azariah); "benefits" (Gamaliel); "holds fast" (Jehoahaz); "is strong" (Uzziel, Azaziah); "delivers" (Elpalet, Eliphalet); "comforts" (Nehemiah); "heals" (Rephael); "conceals" (Elzaphan, Zephaniah); "establishes" (Eliakim); "knows" (Eliada); "remembers" (Zechariah); "sees" (Hazael, Jahaziel); "hears" (Elishama); "answers" (Anaiah); "speaks" (Amariah); "is praised" (Jehaleel); "is asked" (Shealtiel); "comes" (Eliathah); "lives" (Jehiel); "shoots" (Jeremiah); "thunders" (Raamiah; Nehemiah 7:7); "gladdens" (Jahdiel, Jehdeiah); "judges" (Elishaphat, Jehoshaphat, Shephatiah); "is just" (Jehozadak); "is king" (Elimelech, Malchiel); "is lord" (Bealiah); "is great" (Gedaliah); "is perfect" (Jotham); "is high" (Jehoram); "is glorious" (Jochebed); "is incomparable" (Michael, literally "who is like God?")

Besides these distinct names of God other divine names are used, as Adoni in Adoniram, and Melech in Nathan-melech and Ebed-melech, and Baal in Esh-baal (changed for special reasons to Ishbosheth). In some cases names of relationship seem to be used as applied to the Deity (compare Abiel, Abijah, and Abimelech, signifying in each case the fatherhood of God), and in this way Abinadab would correspond to Jehonadab and Abiezer to Eliezer. The same applies to the elements aḥ- ("brother") and amm- ("uncle"). As, however, some of these words are applied to families, not individuals, the whole must be taken as a sentence: Ahibud means "my father is glorious" (referring to God). On the same principle it must be assumed that some verbal names are theophorous, and refer to the action of the Deity, Nathan being the abbreviation of Elnathan ("God gives"), Shaphat of Jehoshaphat ("God judges"). Thus Ahaz appears in a form corresponding to Jehoahaz in an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III. Many of the theophorous endings are contracted into -a, -i, or -ai, as in Shebna, Hosa, Talti, and Shemai. A few names are adjectival, and may contain references to the Deity: Baruch ("blessed"), David ("beloved"), Amos ("strong"). Some names have grammatical endings which it is difficult to interpret, as -oth and -ith in Shelomoth and Shelomith; the final -i in Omri and Barzilai probably refers to a tribal origin. Many names ending in on are animal-names, as Ephron ("small deer"), Nahshon ("small serpent"); compare Samson ("small sun").

Post-Exilic names

After the Exile to Babylon there appeared a tendency toward the use of foreign names, the literal significance of which was disregarded, and this tendency became more and more prominent as time went on. Biblical names ending in -a (as in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah) are Aramaic. Shamsherai (I Chronicles 8:26) is even said to be Arabic, while Mordecai is derived from the name of a Babylonian god (Marduk), as are Belteshazzar (Daniel 10:1), Shenazar (I Chronicles 3:18), and Sheshbazzar (Ezra 1:8) from other deities. There is in this period a tendency also toward descriptive and adjectival names with the definite article prefixed, which easily gave rise to such surnames as Hakkaz, Hakkatan, and Hallosheth (Ezra 2:61; 8:12; Nehemiah 3:12; compare the form ha-Kohelet (Ecclesiastes 12:8, in the Hebrew). In the Hellenistic period Greek names became quite usual among the Jews, especially those of Alexander, Jason, and Antigonus. Even the name of a god like Apollo occurs (Acts 18:24). Other names are Apollonius, Hyrcanus, Lysimachus, Demetrius, Dosa, Nicanor, Pappus, Patroclus, Philo, Sosa, Symmachus, Tryphon, Zeno. The same occurs among women, as Alexandra and Priscilla. Roman names also occur, as Antonius, Apella, Drusus, Justinus, Justus, Marcus, Rufus, Tiberius, and Titus. It was during this period that the practice arose of giving a son the name of his grandfather, as was done in the high-priestly family, the members of which were named alternately Onias and Simon from 332 to 165 BCE. Similarly, a little later, in the family of the Hillelites, the names Gamaliel and Judah succeed each other with only an occasional occurrence of Simon and Hillel. Toward the end of the period, owing to the intermixture of foreign languages, the use of double names for the same person began to be adopted, as in the instances of Simon Peter, John Mark, Thomas Didymus, Herodes Agrippa, and Salome Alexandra.

Talmudic period

Among the names in the Talmud there is a considerable proportion of Greek ones. A large number also are Aramaic, ending in -a or -ai: Abba, Huna, and Papa are instances of the former. Even Bible names were transformed in this direction——Ḥanina instead of Hananiah, Abuya instead of Abijah; while others were shortened, as Lazar (for Eleazar). Many Biblical names received renewed popularity owing to the distinction of their bearers, as those of Gamaliel, Hillel, and Ulla. The tendency toward double names existed here, as Sarah Miriam, Johanan Joseph^[4], and Mahaliel Judah^[5]. Converts to Judaism, like Aquila, Monabaz, and Helena, retained their pagan names (as was the custom also in the early Christian Church). There was some objection to foreign names among the Jews of this period^[6], yet legend declares that the high priest Simon promised Alexander the Great that all the children of priestly families born in the year following his visit to Jerusalem would be named Alexander, after him.^[7]

In the adoption of double names during this early period an attempt was made to translate the Hebrew terms into corresponding Greek, as Ariston for Tobi, Boethus for Ezra, Justus for Zadok, Philo for Jedidah, Theodorus for Nethaneel, and Zosimus for Ḥayyim.

It was somewhat rare for the same name to be used by both sexes. In Biblical times this occurs with regard to the names Abigail, Abijah, Athaliah, Chushan, Ephah, Micha, Nahash, Shelomith, Zibiah; in Talmudic times, with regard to Ibu, Johanan, Nehorai, Pasi, Shalom; the only later instances that may be cited are Jeroham, Mazal-Ṭob, Neḥamah, Menuḥah, Simḥah, Tamar, Bongodas, and Bien-li-Viengue. To wear a man's name seemed as objectionable as wearing men's clothes.

It was already noticed in Talmudic times that the use of family names had died out.^[8] The name of Rabbi Meïr was said to be derived from an experience at school which was regarded as being of good omen.^[9] It is recommended not to name a child after enemies of the Jews, like Sisera and Pharaoh, but to use the names of the Patriarchs (i.e. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.^[10]

Post-Talmudic period

As the Jews spread throughout the lands bordering the Mediterranean they drew upon other languages for their personal names while still retaining Biblical ones, and they were especially prone to adopt names ending in -el. These new names became exceptionally popular in Italy. To this source must be traced the new name Ḥushiel, composed on the same plan as the Biblical ones ending in -el. The kings of the Chazars, so far as their names are known, wavered between pure Biblical names, like Obadiah, and local names, like Bulan. The Karaites in the same neighborhood adopted Tatar names, one of them being known as Toktamish; but elsewhere Karaite names are mostly Arabic and Persian.

The custom of calling one of the sons, generally the eldest, after the paternal (sometimes the maternal) grandfather, of which only nine instances are known during the Talmudic period, became more popular, especially in European states. Maimonides' grandfather was Joseph ben Isaac ben Joseph ben Obadiah ben Solomon ben Obadiah, for instance, and certain families seem to have similarly confined themselves to a few chosen names. Thus, in the Kalonymus family there occurs Meshullam b. Moses b. Ithiel b. Moses b. Kalonymus b. Meshullam b. Kalonymus b. Moses b. Kalonymus b. Jekuthiel b. Moses b. Meshullam b. Ithiel b. Meshullam—only five names among fourteen persons throughout three centuries. As a consequence certain names became characteristic of certain districts: Japheth and Caleb in Greece, and hence among the Karaites; Kalonymus in south Italy; Sheshet and Joab in Rome; Sinai and Pesaḥ in Germany. Some of the older names were revived—Meïr, for example, of which only two previous instances had been known, the tanna Meïr and the Meïr mentioned by Josephus.^[11] Samson was never used by Jews before the eleventh century. But the most striking tendency of the post-Talmudic period is the general choice of local names by the Jews for their civic relations. This led to the adoption of two names, one for civic purposes, known as the kinnuy (probably from the Arabic kunyah), the other (shem ha-ḳodesh) for use in the synagogue and in all Hebrew documents. The latter, the "sacred" name, was as far as possible associated with the former, and was often a translation of a civic one, e.g., Asael for Diofatto, Manoah for Tranquillo, Ḥayyim for Vita; at times the civic name was merely a contraction of the sacred one, e.g., Leser for Eliezer, Sender for Alexander. In other cases mere similarity in sound was sufficient to determine the sacred name, as Mann for Menahem, Kalman for Kalonymus, and the like. Especially noteworthy was the use made of Jacob's blessing to transfer a personal name from the civic to the sacred sphere. Judah being compared to a lion's whelp in Jacob's blessing, Judah became Leo, or Löwe, in lay relationship, and Ephraim became Fischlin. Later on these name-equations became so usual that they formed doublets, which were almost invariably found together, as Dob Bär, Naphtali Hirsch, Judah or Aryeh Löb, and these again gave currency to similar correlative names, as Uri Phoebus.

Titular abbreviations

It was during the Middle Ages that the somewhat curious custom arose of combining the abbreviation of a title with the initials of a name to form a single personal name. This almost invariably implies frequency of mention, and, therefore, celebrity. The best-known examples are those of RaSHI and RaMBaM, who are hardly ever quoted in rabbinical texts except by these names; but there exists a large number of similar contractions.^[12]

A somewhat similar use of a title is the combination with Messer, as in the Italian Messer Leon, while in Provence the honorary prefixes en-, for men, and na-, for women, are combined with the name to form Engusek (En-Joseph), Nabona, etc.

Apart from these tendencies, the general trend of nomenclature among Jews in the Middle Ages was to adopt that of the countries in which they lived, the given names being often identical with those of the surrounding peoples, and other means of identification being derived mainly from localities or offices. Certain peculiarities of various countries may be taken separately.

Arabic names

Among the Arabic-speaking Jews the local Arabic names were adopted, such as Ḥassan, Abdallah, Sahl; or Hebrew names were translated into the corresponding Arabic, as Eleazar into Manẓur, Maẓliaḥ into Maimun. A peculiarity of the Arabic onomatology is the kunyah, the by-name given to a father after the birth of his son, by which he is named after the latter. It may be added here that Abu al-Walid is a kunyah or by-name for Jonah. Akin to this is the use of Ibn to form a family name, the first of this kind among Jews. Among the best known of this formation are Ibn Aknin, Ibn Danan (hence Abendana), Ibn Laṭif, Ibn Migas, Ibn Verga. Abu also forms family names, as in the case of Abudarham, or Aboab.

The Arabic article al appears in quite a number of names, as in Al-Ḥarisi. Other names of interest, given by Steinschneider in a long list of eight hundred Arabic names in the Jewish Quarterly Review (ix. -xiii.), are Ghayyat (in Spanish Gayet), Ibn Danan and Ibn al-Dayyal, Al-Haruni ("the Aaronide," the same as Cohen), Ibn Waḳar, Ibn Zabara and Ibn Zimra, Ḥaji (applied to Karaites who had performed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem), Yaḥya (equivalent to John or Judah). Morel is said to be derived from Samuel; Molko means "royal"; Mas'ud is equivalent to Baruch; Muḳattil ("champion") would be a proper origin for the family name Mocatta; Najar and Najara refer to carpentry; Sasun is merely a transcript of Sason ("lily"). The proper names Sa'id, Sa'ad, and Sa'dan are equally popular among Jews and Arabs. 'Abbas ("lion") corresponds to Judah, as Leo and the like in Europe. Very many Judæo-Arabic names are compounded of 'abd ("servant"), as Abdallah and 'Abd al-Walid. Al-Faraj occurs as the name of the translator at Girgenti, and it is possibly the remote origin of the curious name of Admiral Farragut, whose grandfather came from Minorca. It is considered doubtful whether the name of the Ḳimḥis is Hebrew in that form, or whether it should be pronounced as an Arabic word, Ḳamḥi ("formed of wheat").

In Spain, Portugal, France, England and Germany

The use of surnames thus became common among the Arabic-speaking Jews, who naturally carried the custom into Spain. Among Spanish Jews are found such names as Abeldano, corresponding to Ibn el-Danan; Abencabre, corresponding to Ibn Zabara; Avinbruch, corresponding to Ibn Baruch; and the like. Biblical names often take curious forms in the Spanish records, Isaac appearing as Acaz, Cohen as Coffen or Coffe, Yom-Ṭob as Bondia, Ẓemaḥ as Crescas or Cresquez. The Ḥen family appears to have adopted a translation of the name of their home-village, Gracia, near Barcelona (Loeb, in "R. E. J." iv. 73). Indeed, among the Spaniards the tendency to adopt family names from localities is largely developed; hence were derived such names as Spinoza, Gerondi, Cavalleria, Delmonti, Lousada, and Villa Real. The name Sasportas deserves special attention, as it is really the Balearic dialectal form of La Porta. Also, some family, specially among marranos (those forced to convert to Christianity but who then reverted to Judaism at a later date) took Spanish family names, sometimes using translation (Vidal or De Vidas for Hayyim, Lobos for Zev, De Paz for Salom, and so on) or phonetic similarity, in a kinnui-like system, sometimes choosing between already existing ones (Pizarro/Pissarro, Mendes, Fonseca, Rodríguez and so on).

In France the use of Biblical names appears to have been more extended, judging by the elaborate lists at the end of Gross's "Gallia Judaica." True surnames occurred, especially in the south, like Abigdor, Farissol, Bonet, Lafitte; but as a rule local distinctions were popular, as Samson of Sens, etc. The early Jews of England, who spoke French throughout their stay, also used Biblical names; the most popular name, in the twelfth century at least, being Isaac, next to which came Joseph. On both sides of the British Channel there was a tendency to translate Biblical names into French, as Deulesalt for Isaiah, Serfdeu for Obadiah, Deudone for Elhanan, but the ordinary popular names were adopted also, as Beleasez, Fleurdelis, and Muriel for Jewesses, or Amiot, Bonevie, Bonenfaund, Bonfil, among men. Deulacres and Crescas both occur (probably corresponding to Solomon or Gedaliah). In Germany the tendency to adopt Christian names was perhaps most marked, such names as Bernhard, Bero, Eberhard, Falk, Gumprecht, Knoblauch, Liebreich, Süsskind, Weiss, and Wolf being among those noticed in the early Middle Ages. Especially popular were compounds with -mann or -man, as Feldmann, Kaufmann, Lieberman, Lipman, and Seligman.

Surnames

As has been seen, surnames were not unknown among the Jews of the Middle Ages, and as Jews began to mingle more with their fellow citizens, the practise of using or adopting civic surnames in addition to the "sacred" name, used only in religious connections, grew commensurately. Of course, among the Sephardim this practice was common almost from the time of the exile from Spain, and probably became still more common as a result of the example of the Marranos, who on adopting Christianity accepted in most cases the family names of their godfathers. Among the Ashkenazim, whose isolation from their fellow citizens was more complete, the use of surnames became at all general only in the eighteenth century.

In the Austrian Empire an order was issued in 1787 which compelled the Jews to adopt surnames, though their choice of given names was restricted mainly to Biblical ones.^[13] Commissions of officers were appointed to register all the Jewish inhabitants under such names. If a Jew refused to select a name the commission was empowered to force one upon him. This led to a wholesale creation of artificial surnames, of which Jewish nomenclature bears the traces to the present day. Among the latter class are the following, mentioned by Karl Emil Franzos: Drachenblut, Ochsenschwanz, Nachtkäfer, Ladstockschwinger, Pulverbestandtheil, Temperaturwechsel, Eselskopf, Rindskopf, Gottlos, Wohlgeruch, Singmirwas, Veilchenduft, Stinker, Bettelarm, Nothleider, Geldschrank, Diamant, Smaragd, Karfunkel, Edelstein, Goldader, Galgenvogel, Galgenstrick, Todtschläger, Lumpe, Taschengreifer, Durst, Hunger, Fresser, Säuger, Trinker, Weinglas, Schnapser, Maizel, Schmetterling, Elephant, Nashorn, Pferd, Maulthier, Maulwurf, Wanzenknicker, Saumagen, Küssemich, Groberklotz. Napoleon also, in a decree of July 20, 1808, insisted upon the Jews adopting fixed names^[14] While various governments thus forced the Jews to adopt surnames, they were at the same time inclined to limit their freedom in the selection of given names. In Bohemia the provisions of the law which was passed in 1787 restricting them to Biblical names were not rescinded until August 11, 1836. The Prussian government in the same year attempted to introduce a similar restriction in that state, which led to Zunz producing his classical monograph, "Die Namen der Juden", in which he showed, from examples taken from all periods, that the Jews had freely adopted the current and popular names of their neighbors in all parts of the globe. Owing mainly to this tour de force the enactment was not pressed. Similar rules have been passed by the Russian government from time to time, but without producing much effect.

A recent investigation into Berlin prænomens shows that modern Jews of that city adopt the ordinary given names of their neighbors, but that they tend to keep a certain number of names, though not of Biblical origin, popular among themselves. Thus Harry is mainly Jewish, and the same may be said of Isidore, Jacques, James, and Sigbert. Almost all the Moritzes are Jewish, as well as the majority of Ludwigs, and Julius is almost equally popular among the Berlin Jews. The following popular names in most places represent the accompanying Biblical names: Isidore, Isaac; Jacques and James, Jacob; Ludwig, Levi; Moritz, Moses. Benno is used for Benjamin, and in one case Dagobert for David. Among Jewish girls Regina and Rosa are popular names (N. Pulvermacher, Berliner Vornamen, Berlin, 1902). Notwithstanding this permission to adopt arbitrary surnames, there was still a tendency, at any rate among German-speaking Jews, to adapt these from Biblical names in one or other of their variant forms.

Local names form, perhaps, the larger number of surnames among modern Jews, though no one locally derived name occurs so frequently as the least common Biblical one. Besides general names like Hollander, Deutsch, Frank, Franco, Frankel, almost every European country has contributed its quota. Holland has contributed Lleuwarden, Neumegen, Limburg, Van Thal, and various other Vans, as Van Ryn (Rhine), etc.

Local names

Germany, of course, has contributed the largest number. Besides such well-known cities as Posen (hence Posner), Berlin (hence Berliner and Berlinsky), Bingen, Cassel (cf.David Cassel), Treves (whence, according to some authorities, originated the very popular Alsatian name of Dreyfus), Dresden, Fulda (hence Fould), and Oppenheim, less familiar towns, like Flatau, Hildesheim(Hildesheimer), Bischoffsheim, Auerbach, Behrendt, Landshuth, Sulzberg, have contributed their share. A certain number of names which might at first sight seem to be derived artificially are merely names of towns, like Birnbaum (translated into "Peartree"), Rosenberg, Sommerfeld, Grünberg (hence Greenberg), Goldberg, and Rubenstein. The English Crawcour (cf.Siegfied Kracauer) comes from Cracow, while Van Praagah is obviously the name of a Prague family that settled in Holland before going over to England. The name Gordon is said to be from the Russian Grodno. From Poland have come various general names, as Polano, Pollock, Polack, Polak, Pollak, Poole, Pool. Sephardic surnames, as already mentioned, are almost invariably local, as Almanzi, Castro, Carvajal, Leon, Navarro, Robles, Sevilla (Spanish), and Almeida, Carvallo, Miranda, and Pieba (Portuguese). Many Italian names are also of this class, as Alatino, Genese (from Genoa), Meldola, Montefiore, Mortara, Pisa, and Romanelli (with its variants Romanin, Romain, Romayne, and Romanel). Even in the East there are names of these last two classes, Behar (from Bejar), Galante, Veneziani, though there are a few Arabic names like Alfandari and Ḥaggis; Greek, as Galipapa and Pappo; and a few Turkish, as Jamila, Bilbil, and Sabad.^[15]

Going still farther east, the curious custom which prevails among the Bene Israel may be mentioned of changing Biblical names to similar Hindu names with the addition of -jee, thus Benjamin into Benmajee, Abraham into Abrajee, David into Dawoodjee, Jacob into Akkoobjee. Before dismissing the local names, the names Altschul or Altschuler, derived from the Altschul of Prague, should be mentioned. To the signs of the Frankfort Judengasse are due the names of some of the best known of Jewish families: Rothschild ("red shield"), Schwarzschild, Adler, Ganz or Gans ("goose"), Schiff ("ship"), Strauss ("ostrich"), and Ochs. Schudt gives a list of these signs.^[16]

Official names and nicknames

Turning to the next great source from which have been derived the surnames used in ordinary nomenclature—trades and occupations—such names as Kaufmann and Marchant ("merchant") become prominent. Others of the same kind are: Spielmann ("player"); Steinschneider ("engraver"); Schuster, Schneider, Schneiders, and Snyders ("tailor"; in Hebrew Ḥayyat; hence Chayet); Wechsler ("money-changer"). But there are others that are more distinctively Jewish: Parnass and Gabbay, from the synagogue officials who were so called; Singer, Cantor, Voorsanger, Chazan, Cantarini, from the singers of Israel; Shochet, Schaechter, Schechter, from the ritual slaughterer; Ballin, a bath-keeper; Shadkun, a marriage-broker; Moreno ^{[citation needed]}, Rabe, Rabinowitz, Rabinovich, Rabinowicz, and Rabbinovitz, rabbis; Benmohel, one who performed the sacred rite of Abraham. A number of Arabic names are of similar origin: Al-Fakhkhar, a potter; Mocatta, a mason or possibly a soldier (Al-Muḳatil).^[17]

Descriptive titles, again, are mainly derived from modern languages, and are sometimes translated into Hebrew: thus, Azariah dei Rossi is known as Azariah Min ha-Adummim; or sometimes the Hebrew name is translated into the current languages: thus Jafeh ("beautiful") is translated into Schön, Schöndel, Schandel, Bonfet.

Nicknames seem not to be so frequently adopted as surnames among Jews, though so usual among them in the ordinary life of the ghetto. Yom-Tob and Purim are possibly to be included in this class, and it is said that the various forms of Kaiser and King are derived from players of that part in the Purim plays (purimshpil). Instead of nicknames, modern Jews use contractions of Hebrew descriptive names; thus, Shön represents Sheliaḥ Ne'eman, and Schatz, Sheliach tzibbur; Katz ("cat") represents Kohn Ẓedeḳ; Goetz (in English, Yates) equals Ger Ẓedeḳ; Sack is used for a member of the Zera' Qodesh, or "holy posterity", and it is said that when an -s is attached this reference is to the fraternity of that name at Speyer. Bran, Braun, or Brown is said to represent Ben Rabbi Nachman; while Bril, Brill represents Ben Rabbi Judah Löb.

A few miscellaneous names may be referred to:Speranza, which is used as a woman's name, occurs in the form of Sprinzer in Russia; Margolious and Margolioth are variations of Margaret; and Marguerite ("pearl") finds equivalents in Perel and Perles. The Wahls claim to descend from Saul Wahl, who was king of Poland for one day. Schöntheil is supposed to be a translation of Bonaparte, and Stiebel is derived from the little room kept for the "baḥur" in rich Jews' houses.

Change of name

Change of name was not an unusual occurrence in Biblical times, if one may judge by the instances occurring among the Patriarchs, and it seems to have been not altogether unknown in later times. Thus, Moses Benveniste mentions a certain Obadiah who wandered from Germany to Turkey in 1654 and changed his name to Moses because the former name was unusual.^[18] Later in the Middle Ages a person who was dangerously sick would change his name in the hope that the Angel of Death, who summons persons by name, would be baffled thereby. This custom, known as meshanneh shem, is given in the Talmud^[19] and is mentioned by Judah Ḥasid.^[20] One of the names thus adopted was the appropriate one of Ḥayyim.^[21] In order to prevent any misunderstanding at the resurrection the cabalists later recommended persons to learn a psalm the first and last verses of which began and ended with the first and last letters of their names. Particular care is to be taken in the writing of names in legal documents, the slightest error in which invalidates them. Hence there are quite a number of monographs on names, both personal and geographical, the first of which was that written by Simḥah Cohen; the best known is that of Samuel ben Phoebus and Ephraim Zalman Margulies entitled Ṭib Giṭṭin.

Superstitions

It was thought that Jews of the same name should not live in the same town or permit their children to marry into each others' families^[22]; this seems to have some reference to exogamy. It is even urged that one should not marry a woman of the same name as one's mother; or that she should be required to change it.^[23] Even to the present day it is considered unlucky in Russia for a father-in-law to have the same name as the bridegroom. In other parts of Russia it is considered bad luck to name a child after a living relative. When several children have died in a family the next that is born has no name given to it, but is referred to as "Alter," or Alterke, the view being that the Angel of Death, not knowing the name of the child, will not be able to seize it. When such a child attains the marriageable age, a new name, generally that of one of the Patriarchs, is given to it. For a somewhat similar reason it is considered unlucky in Lithuania to call an only child by his right name.

Pen-names

Finally, it may perhaps be desirable to refer to the frequent practise among Jewish authors of adopting pen-names. It was, indeed, customary for well-known authors of medieval times to be known by the titles of their works rather than by their own names. Thus, Jacob ben Asher is referred to as the Ṭur or the Ba'al ha-Ṭurim; Joseph Caro is known as the Bet Yosef; and Ezekiel Landau as Noda' bi-Yehudah; while even more frequently were authors known by contracted forms of their names, with the addition of some honorary prefix, as given above. Among contemporary Hebrew writers this practise is still more widely observed, though no honorary title is prefixed. A list is given by Moïse Schwab in his Repertoire.^[24] Most Yiddish writers, indeed, appear to prefer to write under some pen-name or pseudonym, and their example is at times followed by modern writers of Hebrew, though these, as a rule, prefer to give a name composed of their initials. Following is a list of the most prominent pen-names adopted in recent years by contemporary writers. Many of these print their Hebrew names in Latin characters.

Of course, other Jewish litterateurs besides the above have adopted pen-names. I. Zangwill has written under the names "J. Freeman Bell" (in collaboration), "Countess von S.," and "Marshallik"; Mrs. Frankau is known as "Frank Danby"; and so on; but there is nothing specifically Jewish about this adoption of a pen-name.

Bibliography

  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public ___domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

• G. Buchanan Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, London, 1898;
• T. Nöldeke, in Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl. (with extensive bibliography). Talmudic: Schorr, in He-Ḥaluẓ, vol. ix.;
• Hirsch Perez Chajes, Beiträge zur Nordsemitischen Onomatologie;
• Bacher, in R. E. J. xiv. 42-47. Modern: Andræe, Zur Volkskunde der Juden, pp. 120-128;
• Zunz, Namen der Juden, in Ges. Schriften, ii. 1-82;
• Löw, Lebensalter, pp. 92-109;
• Orient, Lit. vi. 129-241; vii. 42, 620;
• Steinschneider, in Hebr. Bibl. pp. 556, 962;
  • idem, in Z. D. M. G. xxxii. 91;
• Hyamson, Jewish Surnames, in Jewish Literary Annual, 1903, pp. 53-78;
• M. Sablatzky, Lexikon der Pseudonymen Hebr. Schriftsteller, Berdychev, 1902.

See also

• List of Jewish nobility
• Pedigrees (Jewish Encyclopedia)
• Family name etymology, German family name etymology
• Jewish Encyclopedia articles
• Hebrew name
• List of Hebrew names
• List of Eastern European surnames
• Polish surnames
• List of Germanic-speaking cultures surnames

References

1. Frazer, "Golden Bough," 2d ed., i. 404 et seq.
2. E. Clodd, "Tom Tit Tot," London, 1899
3. "Studies in Biblical Archeology," pp. 94–100
4. Giṭ. 34b
5. Yoma 52b
6. Num. R.
7. Yosippon, folio 87
8. Giṭ. 88a
9. 'Er. 13b
10. Yoma 36b
11. BJ vi. 5, § 1
12. For a fuller list see Händler's list of abbreviations in Dalman's Talmudisches Wörterbuch.
13. A list of permitted first names is given in Kropatschat's Gesetzsammlung (xiv. 539-567), the names marked in black letters being those reserved for Jews.
14. "L'Univers Israélite", lvii. 472
15. Franco, "Histoire des Israélites de l'Empire Ottoman"',' pp. 284-285.
16. Schudt, "Jüdische Merckwürdigkeiten," iii. 151-154.
17. For the various forms of Cohen see Jew. Encyc. iv. 144.
18. Responsa, i. 40
19. R. H. 17a
20. Sefer Ḥasidim, No. 245.
21. For the various forms of Ḥayyim see Jew. Encyc. vi. 271.
22. Sefer Ḥasidim, Nos. 24–34
23. ibid., No. 23
24. Schwab, Moise. Repetoire (Supplement, pp. 200-207)

External links

• GABIN List of Jewish surnames, from a Polish Business Directory
• The Database of Family Names
• The Jews of Ethiopia and their Names