Teenage pregnancy

Teenage pregnancy is technically defined as occurring when women under the age of 20 become pregnant, although in the United States, the term usually refers to girls younger than 18 years of age.

The youngest mother on record is Lina Medina, who, in 1939, gave birth to a boy at the age of five.^[1] However, most girls do not become fully fertile until much later; for example, the average age of menarche (first menstrual period) in the United States is 12.5, though this figure varies by ethnicity^[2] and weight, and first ovulation occurs only irregularly until after this. The average age of menarche has been declining and is continuing to do so. Whether fertility leads to early pregnancy depends on a number of factors, both societal and personal. Worldwide, rates of teenage pregnancy range from 143 per 1000 in sub-Saharan Africa to 2.9 per 1000 in South Korea.^[3]^[4]

Pregnant teenagers face many of the same obstetrics issues as women in their 20s and 30s. However, there are additional medical concerns for younger mothers, particularly those under 15 and those living in developing countries. ^[5] For mothers between 15 and 19, age in itself is not a risk factor, but additional risks may be associated with socioeconomic factors. ^[6]

Data supporting teenage pregnancy as a social issue in developed countries include lower educational levels, higher rates of poverty, and other poorer "life outcomes" in children of teenage mothers. Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage, and carries a social stigma in many communities and cultures. For these reasons, there have been many studies and campaigns which attempt to uncover the causes and limit the numbers of teenage pregnancies. ^[7] In other countries and cultures, particularly in the developing world, teenage pregnancy is usually within marriage and does not involve a social stigma. ^[8]

Global incidence

Industrialized and developing countries have distinctly different rates of teenage pregnancy. In developed regions, such as North America and Western Europe, teen parents tend to be unmarried and adolescent pregnancy is seen as a social issue. By contrast, teenage parents in developing countries are often married, and their pregnancy may be welcomed by family and society. However, in these societies, early pregnancy may combine with malnutrition and poor health care to cause medical problems. A report by Save the Children found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women under age 20 worldwide. More than 90% of these births occur to women living in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of mortality among women between the ages of 15 and 19 in such areas, as they are the leading cause of mortality among older women.

Africa

The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world — 143 per 1,000 girls aged 15-19 years — is in sub-Saharan Africa. ^[3] Women in Africa, in general, get married at much earlier ages than women elsewhere — leading to earlier pregnancies. In Niger, according to the Health and Demographic Survey in 1992, 47% of women aged 20-24 were married before 15 and 87% before 18. 53% of those surveyed also had given birth to a child before the age of 18. ^[9]

Teenage birth rates in African countries (2002): ^[10]

Country	Birth rate*	Country	Birth rate*
Tunisia	7	Libya	7
Morocco	25	Egypt	47
Rwanda	50	South Africa	66
Kenya	78	Senegal	86
Zimbabwe	92	Nigeria	103
Eritrea	115	Tanzania	120
Zambia	145	Mali	191
Somalia	213	Niger	233

* per 1000 women aged 15-19

A Save the Children report identified 10 countries where motherhood carried the most risks for young women and their babies. Of these, 9 were in sub-Saharan Africa, and Niger, Liberia, and Mali were the nations where girls were the most at-risk. In the 10 highest-risk nations, more than one in six teenage girls between the ages of 15 to 19 gave birth annually, and nearly one in seven babies born to these teenagers died before the age of one year. ^[5]

Asia

Teenage birth rates in Asian countries (2002): ^[10]

Country	Birth rate*	Country	Birth rate*
South Korea	2	Japan	4
China	5	Malaysia	18
Iran	33	Kazakhstan	45
India	45	Thailand	49
Pakistan	50	United Arab Emirates	51
Mongolia	54	Indonesia	55
Cambodia	60	Afghanistan	111
Nepal	117	Bangladesh	117
Qatar	69

* per 1000 women aged 15-19

In the Indian subcontinent, premarital sex is uncommon, but early marriage sometimes means adolescent pregnancy. The rate of early marriage is higher in rural regions than it is in urbanized areas. Fertility rates in South Asia range from 71 to 119 births per 1000 women aged 15-19. 30% of all Indian induced abortions are performed on women who are under 20.

Other parts of Asia have shown a trend towards increasing age at marriage for both sexes. In South Korea and Singapore, marriage before age 20 has all but disappeared, and, although the occurrence of sexual intercourse before marriage has risen, rates of adolescent childbearing are low at 4 to 8 per 1000. The rate of early marriage and pregnancy has decreased sharply in Indonesia and Malaysia; however, it remains high in comparison to the rest of Asia.

Surveys from Thailand have found that a significant minority of unmarried adolescents are sexually active. Although premarital sex is considered normal behavior for males, particularly with prostitutes, it is not always regarded as such for females. Most Thai youth reported that their first sexual experience, whether within or outside of marriage, was without contraception. The adolescent fertility rate in Thailand is relatively high at 60 per 1000. 25% of women admitted to hospitals in Thailand for complications of induced abortion are students. The Thai government has undertaken measures to inform the nation's youth about the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases and unplanned pregnancy.

According to the World Health Organization, in several Asian countries including Bangladesh and Indonesia, a large proportion (26-37%) of deaths among female adolescents can be attributed to maternal causes. ^[11]

Europe

Teenage birth and abortion rates in European countries (1998):^[4]

Country	Birth rate*	Abortion rate*	% married teenage mothers
Switzerland	5.5	(not available)	61%
Netherlands	6.2	3.9	35%
Sweden	6.5	17.7	18%
Italy	6.6	6.7	55%
Spain	7.9	4.9	40%
Denmark	8.1	15.4	23%
France	9.3	13.2	15%
Belgium	9.9	5.2	42%
Greece	11.8	1.3	80%
Germany	13.1	5.3	39%
Czech Republic	16.4	12.4	47%
Ireland	18.7	(not available)	4%
Poland	18.7	(not available)	60%
Portugal	21.1	(not available)	45%
Hungary	26.5	30.2	36%
United Kingdom	30.8	21.3	10%

* per 1000 women aged 15-19

The overall trend in Europe since 1970 has been a decreasing total fertility rate, an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers. However, in the past, teenage mothers in Europe tended to be married, and therefore were less likely to be perceived as a social issue. Some countries, such as Greece and Poland, retain a traditional model of births to married mothers in their late teens.

The rates of teenage pregnancy may vary widely within a country. For instance, in the United Kingdom, the rate of adolescent pregnancy in 2002 was as high as 100.4 per 1000 among young women living in the London Borough of Lambeth, and as low as 20.2 per 1000 among residents in the Midlands local authority area of Rutland. In Italy, the teenage birth rate in central regions is only 3.3 per 1,000, but, in the Mezzogiorno it is 10.0 per 1000.

The U.K, which has the highest teenage birth rate in Europe, also has a higher rate of abortion than most European countries. 80% of young Britons reported engaging in sexual intercourse while still in their teens, although a half of those under 16, and one-third of those between 16 to 19, said they did not use a form of contraception during their first encounter. Less than 10% of British teen mothers are married and a relatively high proportion of them are under the age of 16. Adolescent pregnancy is viewed as a matter of concern by both the British government and the British press. Other countries like Portugal also have a higher percentage of teenage pregnancy.

In contrast, the Netherlands has a low rate of births and abortions among teenagers. Compared to countries with higher teenage birth rates, the Dutch have a higher average age at first intercourse and increased levels of contraceptive use (including the "double Dutch" method of using both a hormonal contraception method and a condom). Nordic countries, such as Denmark and Sweden, also have low rates of teenage birth, but their abortion rates are higher than those of the Netherlands.

In some countries, such as Italy and Spain, the low rate of adolescent pregnancy may be attributed to traditional values and social stigmatization. These countries also have low overall fertility rates.

Teenage birth is associated with disadvantages in later life. Across 13 nations in the European Union, women who gave birth as teenagers are twice as likely to be living in poverty, in comparison to those who wait until they are over 20. ^[4]

North America

The teenage birth rate in United States was 42 births per 1,000 women aged 15–19 in 2002.^[12], the highest in the developed world.^[4] If all pregnancies, including those which end in abortion or miscarriage, are taken into account, then the total rate in 2000 was 75.4 pregnancies per 1,000 girls. Nevada and the District of Columbia have the highest teen pregnancy rates in the U.S., while North Dakota has the lowest. ^[12] 95% of teenage pregnancies in the U.S. are unintended; approximately one third end in abortion, one third end in spontaneous miscarriage, and one third will continue their pregnancy and keep their baby. ^[13]

However, the trend is decreasing: in 1990, the birth rate was 61.8, and the pregnancy rate 116.9 per thousand. This decline has manifested across all racial groups, although teenagers of African-American and Hispanic descent retain a higher rate, in comparison to that of European-Americans and Asian-Americans. The Guttmacher Institute attributed about 25% of the decline to abstinence and 75% to the effective use of contraceptives. ^[12]

Within the United States teen pregnancy is often brought up in political discourse. The goal to limit teen pregnancy is a bi-partisan goal shared by both Republicans and Democrats, though avenues of reduction are usually different. Many Democrats cite teen pregnancy as proof of the continuing need for access to birth control and abortion, while Republicans often cite a need for returning to conservative values.^{[citation needed]}

An inverse correlation has been noted between teen pregnancy rates and the quality of education in a state. A positive correlation, albeit weak, appears between a city's teen pregnancy rate and its average summer night temperature, especially in the Southern U.S. (Savageau, compiler, 1993-1995).

Throughout the U.S., statistical studies show that the average age of the father of a child at birth is inversely related to the age of the mother, if the mother is less than 16 years of age. [Formula: m < 16 --> 1/f o< m , where m = mother's age and f = father's age.] This proportionality is less pronounced in Hispanic populations of the U.S., and in Canada, than it is in the U.S. general population. This explains the common observation that groups and support networks for teen fathers typically contain a greater proportion of Hispanics than do similar groups for teen mothers.^{[citation needed]}

The number of births in the U.S. in which the father is younger than 18 and the mother is older is a small percent, and when the father's age is lower than 16, the above equation is reversed. As the age of the father decreases below 16, the average age of the mother decreases as well, although this decrease is low in absolute-value of slope. ^{[citation needed]}

The Canadian teenage birth rate in 2002 was 16 per 1000 ^[10] and the teenage pregnancy rate was 33.9. According to data from Statistics Canada, the Canadian teenage pregnancy rate has trended towards a steady decline for both younger (15-17) and older (18-19) teens in the period between 1992-2002. ^[14] Canada's highest teen pregnancy rates occur in small towns located in rural parts of peninsular Ontario (the "Golden Triangle").

The courts of Canada can legally give judicial marriage consent if the ages of both partners exceed 14, and in the case of pregnancy this consent is often granted. Two American states, Kansas and Georgia, until recently had laws allowing unlimited age of marriage in the case of pregnancy, but these laws are in the process of amendment after three legal cases.^{[citation needed]}

Causes of teenage pregnancy

In some societies, early marriage and traditional gender roles are important factors in the rate of teenage pregnancy. In societies where adolescent marriage is uncommon, an early age at first intercourse and lack of contraceptive use may be factors. ^[4]^[15] Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned. ^[15]^[16]

Adolescent sexual behavior

According to information available from the Guttmacher Institute, sex by age 20 is the norm across the world and countries with low levels of adolescent pregnancy accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality. ^[17]

However, in a Kaiser Family Foundation study, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn’t really want to do".^[18] Inhibition-reducing drugs and alcohol may encourage unintended sexual activity. ^[4]^[19]^[18] According to Leonard Sax (a physician and writer about sex differences), girls often become intoxicated before engaging in sexual activities because it "numbs the experience for them, making it less embarrassing and less emotionally painful."^[20]

Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.^[21] ^[22] However, some recent studies have found that the rate of contraceptive use among teenage girls is roughly the same as that among older women.^[23]

In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use condoms incorrectly or forget to take oral contraceptives. Contraceptive failure rates are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users. ^[19] Longer term methods such as injections, subcutaneous implants, the vaginal ring, or intrauterine devices last from a month to years and may prevent pregnancy more effectively in women who have trouble following routines, including many young women. The use of more than one contraceptive measure decreases the risk of unplanned pregnancy, and if one is a condom barrier method, the transmission of sexually transmitted disease is also reduced.

Sexual abuse

Rape is a majority factor in pregnancies under age 15 and a minority factor above age 15. ^[4] ^[19] ^[18] Studies have found that between 11% and 20% of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape, while about 60% of teenage mothers claimed their pregnancies were preceded by unwanted sexual experiences. ^[24]^[25] Before age 15, a majority of first intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary.^[15]The Guttmacher Institute found that 60% of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males an average of six years their senior. ^[26]Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries.^[27]^[28]

In many countries, sexual intercourse with a young teenage girl is not treated as consensual because the teenage girl is said to lack the maturity and knowledge to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult male and to understand the repercussions thereof. Sex with a minor girl in industrialized countries is treated as statutory rape though this differs according to the jurisdiction. For example in the United Kingdom it is illegal for a man to have sex with a girl under 16, but in Italy it is not illegal unless she is under 14 (see age of consent).

Socioeconomic factors

Poverty is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy. ^[19] Economically poor countries such as Niger and Bangladesh have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as Switzerland and Japan.^[10] In Italy, the teenage birth rate in the well-off central regions is only 3.3 per 1,000, but, in the poorer Mezzogiorno it is 10.0 per 1000.^[4] Sociologist Mike A. Males noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in California:^[29]

County	Poverty rate	Birth rate*
Marin County	5%	5
Tulare County (Causcasians)	18%	50
Tulare County (Hispanics)	40%	100

* per 1000 women aged 15-19

Low educational expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor. ^[30] A girl is also more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens. ^[31] ^[32]

There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits and council housing. Most knew little about housing or financial aid before they got pregnant and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong. ^[16]

Foster care youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the United States, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly 3 times the rate for girls in the general population.^[33]

Studies indicate that an important contributing factor is an age discrepancy between the teenage girl and her male partner. Teenage girls with older partners are more likely to become pregnant than those with partners closer in age, and are also more likely to have the baby rather than get an abortion. ^[34] Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older. ^[35] ^[36]

Commentator opinion

Experts in the area and other commentators have offered varying opinions on the root causes of teenage pregnancy.

According to Gill Francis, of the National Children's Bureau, "There are four main reasons why girls in Britain become pregnant. We don’t give children enough information; we give them mixed messages about sex and relationships; social deprivation means girls are more likely to become pregnant; and girls whose mothers were teenage mums are more likely to do the same". ^[21]

Laurence Shaw, a UK fertility specialist, has suggested that, despite the social stigma attached to teenage pregnancy, it is a natural biological adaptation to begin reproducing during the peak fertile period of the late teens and early twenties. This is the period of time when the fecundity rate (a measure of fertility) is highest, nearing 30%. ^[37]

According to Gracie Hsu of the Family Research Council, "contrary to the common perception that teenage sex and pregnancy typically stem from two teenagers getting caught up in the heat of the moment, new research reveals that many teenage girls are being sexually exploited and impregnated by adult men." She also highlights family breakdown, fatherless families, lack of parental supervision, cultural influences, and erosion of legal protections such as statutory rape laws. ^[38]

Public opinion

Opinion polls have also attempted to determine what some of the root causes of teenage pregnancy might be:

Peer pressure: 76% of girls and 58% of boys in a 1996 Seventeen magazine survey reported that teenage females had sexual intercourse in response to their boyfriend's desire for it. ^[22] A 2003 Kaiser Family Foundation poll found that one in three young men aged 15-17 said they had felt pressure from male friends to have sex. ^[39]
Contraceptive use: In a 1996 Kaiser Family Foundation study, 46% of adolescents surveyed said that they believed teenage pregnancy resulted from the failure to keep contraception at the ready. 23% of sexually active young women the 1996 Seventeen magazine poll admitted to having had unprotected sex with a partner who eschewed the use of a condom. ^[22] 70% of girls in a 1997 PARADE poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor. ^[22]
Parental relationship: 66% of girls in the 1997 PARADE survey said that the likelihood becoming pregnant as a teen increased if one had parents who were inattentive, unloving, or failed to instill moral values. ^[22] A majority of respondents in a 1988 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of communication between parents and child and also to inadequate parental supervision. ^[22]
Mass media: In the 1997 PARADE survey, 57% replied that sexualized content in film, 55% in television, and 44% in music helped to influence teenagers to engage in sexual activity before they are ready. ^[22] A 1996 U.S. News & World Report poll, which asked about how television programs might contribute to the incidence of teenage pregnancy, found that 46% thought TV played a large role, 30% that it had some effect, 14% that it had little effect, 9% that it had none. ^[22]
36% in the 1997 PARADE survey said they believed that an adolescent might become pregnant to satisfy a desire for unconditional love. 24% said they believed that a girl might also become pregnant in an attempt to retain or win back a boyfriend.

Limiting teenage pregnancies

Many health educators have argued that comprehensive sex education would effectively reduce the number of teenage pregnancies, although opponents argue that such education encourages more and earlier sexual activity.

In the UK, the teenage pregnancy strategy, which was run first by the Department of Health and is now based out of the Children, Young People and Families directorate in the Department for Education and Skills, works on several levels to reduce teenage pregnancy and increase the social inclusion of teenage mothers and their families by:

joined up action, making sure branches of government and health and education services work together effectively;
prevention of teenage pregnancy through better sex education and improving contraceptive and advice services for young people, involving young people in service design, supporting the parents of teenagers to talk to them about sex and relationships, and targeting high-risk groups;
better support for teenage mothers, including help returning to education, advice and support, work with young fathers, better childcare and increasing the availability of supported housing.

The teenage pregnancy strategy has had mixed success. Although teenage pregnancies have fallen overall, they have not fallen consistently in every region, and in some areas they have increased. There are questions about whether the 2010 target of a 50% reduction on 1998 levels can be met.

In the United States the topic of sex education is the subject of much contentious debate. Some schools provide "abstinence-only" education and virginity pledges are increasingly popular. Most public schools offer “abstinence-plus” programs that support abstinence but also offer advice about contraception. A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant. ^[40]

The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach. ^[41]

In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Indonesia and Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools. ^[11] Non-governmental agencies such as the International Planned Parenthood Federation provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against child marriage have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female literacy and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as Iran, Indonesia, and the Indian state of Kerala.

Medical outcomes

Maternal and perinatal health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of premature birth and low birth weight is higher among adolescent mothers. ^[7] ^[42] ^[6] Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive prenatal care, often seeking it in the third trimester, if at all. ^[6] The Guttmacher Institute reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to suffer from health issues in childhood or be hospitalized than those born to older women. ^[43]

Many pregnant teens are subject to nutritional deficiencies from poor eating habits common in adolescence, including attempts to lose weight through dieting, skipping meals, food faddism, snacking, and consumption of fast food. ^[44] Inadequate nutrition during pregnancy is an even more marked problem among teenagers in developing countries. ^[45] ^[46]

Complications of pregnancy result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting HIV. ^[5]

Risks for medical complications are greater for girls 14 years of age and younger, as an underdeveloped pelvis can lead to difficulties in childbirth. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by Caesarean section in industrialized nations; however, in developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to eclampsia, obstetric fistula, infant mortality, or maternal death. ^[5] For mothers in their late teens, age in itself is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology. ^[6]

Socioeconomic and psychological outcomes

Several studies have examined the socioeconomic, medical, and psychological impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors, such as poverty or social support, may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents can use family and community support, social services and child-care support to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.

Impact on the mother

Being a young mother can affect one's education. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of high school. ^[7] One study in 2001 found that women who gave birth during their teens completed secondary-level schooling 10-12% as often and pursued post-secondary education 14-29% as often as women who waited until age 30. ^[47]

Young motherhood can affect employment and social class. The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women. ^[7] One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were impoverished at the time of giving birth. ^[48] Additional research found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought social assistance within the first five years of their child's life. ^[7] A study of 100 teenaged mothers in the United Kingdom found that only 11% received a salary while the remaining 89% were unemployed. ^[49] Most British teenage mothers live in poverty, with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution ^[50]

One-fourth of adolescent mothers will have a second child within 24 months of the first. Factors that determine which are more likely to have a closely-spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman — or her parents — and increases if she gets married . ^[51]

There is evidence in the U.S. that with emotional and practical support - for example, good access to education and childcare - teenage mothers can catch up by the age of 30 with the average outcomes for their age group and social-economic background. In the UK, researchers have found that if you compare teenage mothers with other girls with similarly deprived social-economic profiles, bad school experiences and low educational aspirations, the difference in their respective life chances is negligible.^[52]

Impact on the child

Early motherhood can affect the psychosocial development of the infant. The occurrence of developmental disabilities and behavioral issues is increased in children born to teen mothers. ^[53] ^[54] One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to stimulate their infant through affectionate behaviors such as touch, smiling, and verbal communication, or to be sensitive and accepting toward his or her needs. ^[53] Another found that those who had more social support were less likely to show anger toward their children or to rely upon punishment. ^[55]

Poor academic performance in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of them being more likely than average to fail to graduate from secondary school, be held back a grade level, or score lower on standardized tests. ^[7] Daughters born to adolescent parents are more likely to become teen mothers themselves. ^[32] ^[7] A son born to a young woman in her teens is three times more likely to serve time in prison. ^[56]

Impact on other family members

Teen pregnancy and motherhood can have an influence upon younger siblings. One study found that the little sisters of teen mothers were less likely to place emphasis on the importance of education and employment and more likely to accept sexual initiation, parenthood, and marriage at younger ages; little brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of non-marital and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to high-risk behaviors. ^[57] An additional study discovered that those with an older sibling who is a teen parent often end up babysitting their nieces and nephews and that young girls placed in such a situation have an increased risk of getting pregnant themselves. ^[31]

Teenage fatherhood

Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the United States are fathered by adult men age 20 or older. ^[58] ^[59] The Guttmacher Institute reports that over 40 percent of mothers aged 15-17 had sexual partners three to five years older and almost one in five had partners six or more years older. ^[60] A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner. For example, among mothers aged 11- 12, the average father was nearly 10 years older. ^[61]

Famous teenage parents

At the age of 13, Lady Margaret Beaufort gave birth to her only child, who later became Henry VII of England.
At the age of 18, William Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway. Their first child, Susannah, was born within six months.
Sacagawea, translator and guide to Lewis and Clark, gave birth to her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, while on expedition, and traveled with him to the Pacific Ocean and back. Although Sacagawea's exact birth date is unknown, she was probably 17 or 18 at the time of the birth.
In 1917, 17-year-old Kamala Nehru gave birth to her daughter, Indira (later prime minister of India).
Child actress tuned diplomat Shirley Temple was 19 when she gave birth to her first child, Linda Susan, in 1948.
Maya Angelou, an American poet, memoirist, actress and an important figure in the American Civil Rights Movement became pregnant at the age of 16 and gave birth to her son, Guy Johnson, who also became a poet later in life.
Country singer Loretta Lynn had four children in her teens and was a grandmother at 29.
Oprah Winfrey gave birth at the age of 14 to a baby who died in hospital weeks after it was born. Oprah has said, "I would tell no one until I felt safe enough to share my dark past,” Oprah said in the February issue of O magazine. “The years I was sexually abused, from age 10 to 14, my resulting promiscuity as a teenager, and finally, at 14, my becoming pregnant". ^[62]
Author Beverly D'Onofrio, whose autobiography Riding in Cars with Boys was adapted into the 2001 film of the same name, was 15 years old when she gave birth to her son Jason in 1961.
Anna Nicole Smith had her first child, Daniel, when she was 18.
Australian actress Carla Bonner, best known for her role as Stephanie Hoyland in the hit soap Neighbours, was 18 when she gave birth to her first son Harley in 1991.
Pop singer Marcia Hines, who later became a judge on Australian Idol, was 17 when she gave birth to her daughter Dohnyale "Deni" Hines in 1970.
Singer and actress Solange Knowles was 18 when she gave birth to her first child, Daniel Julez Smith Junior, in 2004.
Taylor Hanson, a member of the pop band Hanson, was 19 when his 18-year-old wife Natalie gave birth to their first child, a son named Jordan Ezra, in 2002.
Asia Nitollano, who joined pop group The Pussycat Dolls after winning reality tv show Pussycat Dolls Present: The Search for the Next Doll, was 17 when she gave birth to her daughter in 2005.
Yulia Volkova, of the controversial Russian pop band t.A.T.u., was 19 when she gave birth to her daughter Viktoria Pavlovna in 2004; she had spoken publicly about having an abortion the year before.
Pop singer Fantasia Barrino, winner of American Idol 2004, was 17 when she gave birth to a daughter named Zion Quari' in 2001; in 2005 she released a controversial song about single motherhood entitled Baby Mama.
Oscar-nominated actress Keisha Castle-Hughes was 17 when she gave birth to her first child, a girl named Felicity-Amore, in 2007.
Linda Lee CadwellWidow Of Bruce Lee Who Gave Brith Son Brandon 1965
Dimple Kapadia Gave birth to a daughter Twinkle Khanna in 1974, at the age of just seventeen
Manju Warrier Is Malyali Actress And Wife Of Dileep She Gave Her Daughter Meenakshi In 1999

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