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Sufism is a mystic tradition within Islam and encompasses a diverse range of beliefs and practices dedicated to divine love and the cultivation of the heart.
"Sufism" has been defined as a type of knowledge by the great Sufi masters. Shaykh Ahmad Zarruq, a 14th century Sufi who wrote "The Principles of Sufism" defined Sufism as, "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God.” Ibn 'Ajiba, one of the best known Sufi masters defined Sufism as "a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine, purify one’s inward from filth and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits."
The Tariqas (Sufi orders) may be associated with Shi'a Islam, Sunni Islam, or other currents of Islam. It has been suggested that Sufi thought emerged from the Middle East in the eighth century, but adherents are now found around the world.[1].
Etymology
A few etymologies for the word Sufi (Template:Lang-ar - Template:Lang-ku - Template:Lang-fa - Template:Lang-tr) or Irfan (Arabic/Persian: عرفان) have been suggested. Other posibility come directly from sofia, accepting the important influence of helenistic culture in the firts islam.
The conventional view is that the word originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore. However, not all sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool. Another etymological theory states that the root word of Sufi is the Arabic word safa (صفا), meaning purity. This places the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul.
Others suggest the origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer.
Yet another etymology, advanced by the 10th century author Al-Biruni is that the word, as 'Sufiya', is linked with the Greek term for 'Wisdom' - 'Sophia', although for various reasons this derivation is not accepted by many at the present.
Basic beliefs
The essence of Being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. The chief aim of all Sufis then is to let go of all notions of duality, therefore the individual self also, and realize the divine unity.
Sufis teach in personal groups, as the interaction of the master is considered necessary for the growth of the pupil. They make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor, and it is held by Sufis that meaning can only be reached through a process of seeking the truth, and knowledge of oneself. Although philosophies vary between different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to various forms of mysticism such as Hesychasm, Zen Buddhism and Gnosticism and Christian mysticism.
A significant part of Persian literature comes from the Sufis, who created books of poetry (which include for example the Walled Garden of Truth, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the Conference of the Birds and the Masnavi), all of which contain teachings of the Sufis.
History of Sufism
The history of Sufism can be divided into the following principal periods:
Origins
Sufism is generally reckoned to originate from muslims around Basra which is in today's Iraq. Almost all traditional Sufi schools (orders) trace their "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib except the Naqshbandi order which traces its origin to caliph Abu Bakr. From their point of view, the esoteric teaching was given to those who had the capacity to contain the direct experiential gnosis of God, and then passed on from teacher to student through the centuries.
Some orientalist scholars believe that Sufism was essentially the result of Islam evolving in a more mystic direction. For example, Annemarie Schimmel proposes that Sufism in its early stages of development meant nothing but the interiorization of Islam. And Louis Massignon states: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."[2]
The great masters of Sufism
The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterised by the practice of an apprentice (murid) placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh or pir).
Schools were developed, concerning themselves with the topics of mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through progressive stages (maqaam) and states (haal). The schools were formed by reformers who felt their core values and manners had disappeared in a society marked by material prosperity that they saw as eroding the spiritual life.
Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian, Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the first mystics among the "Taabi'een" in Islam. Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God. Junayd was among the first theorist of Sufism; he concerned himself with ‘fanaa’ and ‘baqaa’, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena.
Formalization of philosophies of Sufism
Al Ghazali's treatises, the "Reconstruction of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness," argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an making it compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and theology. It was around 1000 CE that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.
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Propagation of Sufism
Sufism, during 1200-1500 CE, experienced an era of increased activity in various parts of the Islamic world. This period is considered as the "Classical Period" or the "Golden Age" of Sufism. Lodges and hospices soon became not only places to house Sufi students, but also places for practising Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat.
The propagation of Sufism started from its origins in Baghdad in Shiah majority areas, such as Iraq and Khorasan, and spread to Persia, Pakistan, India, North Africa, and Muslim Spain. There were tests of conciliation between Sufism and the other Islamic sciences (sharia, fiqh, etc.), as well as the beginning of the Sufi brotherhoods (turuq).
One of the first orders to originate was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah Ahmed Yesevi in modern Kazakhstan. The Kubrawiya order, originating in Central Asia, was named after Najmeddin Kubra, known as the "saint-producing shaykh" , since a number of his disciples became shaykhs. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included Rumi, founder of the Mevlevi order in Turkey, Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Iran, Moinuddin Chishti and Makhdoom Ashraf in India.
Sufism's role in the expansion of Islam
Sufism has an important historical role in the expansion of Islam and the conversion of Christians in particular. Sufism has underpinned the majority of conversions to Islam since the 10th century. The most striking examples are to be found on the borders of the ottoman empire.
The Devshirme system, where Christian children were confiscated from the western edges of the ottoman empire, and raised as Janissary Soldiers (the Guard element or "core" of the ottoman army, which progressively became a sort of Foreign Legion ), was underpinned by the adherence of the Janissary corps to Sufi Islam. This more flexible form of Islam was well suited to the first generation muslims of the Janissaries. Several hundred thousand converts to Islam passed through this system.
Another striking and more direct Sufic impact was on Chechnya and Daghestan. Primarily Animist but also Christian at the beginning of the 18th century, Chechnya and Daghestan were converted to Naqshbandi Sufi Islam and by the middle of the 19th century were fighting their annexation into the Russian Empire (that wanted to link up its two territories of Russia and Georgia) under the banner of a holy islamic war. Imam Shamil, along with all the other of their leaders at this time, was Supreme Naqshbandi Imam of Chechnya and Daghestan.
In these contexts, Sufism often acts as a longterm gateway to more literal forms of Islam. Chechnya for example is now edging towards Wahhibite Islam.
Modern Sufism
This period includes the effects of modern thought, science, and philosophy on Sufism, and the advent of Sufism to the West. Important Sufis of this period include Shaykh Nazim al-Qubrusi, Salaheddin Ali Nader Shah Angha, Shah Maghsoud Sadegh Angha, Inayat Khan, Idries Shah, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Muzaffer Ozak, Javad Nurbakhsh, Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Samuel L. Lewis, Dr. Prof. Muhammed Ahmed Qadri and Shaykh Sidi Muhammad al-Jamal who have in great measure been responsible for the continued introduction and spread of the Sufi path in the modern West.
Influences
A number of scholars perceive influences on Sufism from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of mysticism and philosophy. Some of these new perspectives originate from the synthesis of Persian civilization with Islam, an emphasis on spiritual aspects of Islam, and the incorporation of ideas and practices from other mysticisms such as Gnosticism and Judaism into Islam.[3] There are also claims regarding ancient Egyptian roots of Sufism which are not widely accepted. However, most Sunni Muslim scholars consider Sufism to be an integral part of Islam, and do not acknowledge foreign influence on orthodox Sufism.
Sufi concepts
The Six Subtleties
Realities of The Heart:[4] Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish Lataif-e-Sitta (The Six Subtleties), Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa. These lataif (singular : latifa) designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, faculties of sensory perception.
Sufic development involves the awakening of these spiritual centers of perception that lie dormant in an individual. Each center is associated with a particular colour and general area of the body, ofttimes with a particular prophet, and varies from order to order. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate these centers. After undergoing this process, the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion."
The person gets acquainted with the lataif one by one by Muraqaba (Sufi meditation), Dhikr (Remembrance of God) and purification of one's psyche from negative thoughts, emotions, and actions. Loving God and one's fellow, irrespective of his or her race, religion or nationality, and without consideration for any possible reward, is the key to ascension according to Sufis.
These six "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa, and the purificative activities applied to them, contain the basic orthodox Sufi philosophy. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi & Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology is outlined and bears some resemblance to the schemata of kabbalah and the tantric chakra system.
Sufi cosmology
Although there is no consensus with regard to Sufi cosmology, one can disentangle at least three different cosmographies: Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by Suhrawardi Maqtul, Neoplatonic view of cosmos cherished by Islamic philosophers like Ibn Sina and Sufis like Ibn al-Arabi, and Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric world. All these doctrines (each one of them claiming to be impeccably orthodox) were freely mixed and juxtaposed, frequently with confusing results – a situation one also encounters in other esoteric doctrines.
See also: Plane (cosmology) Esoteric cosmology.
Sufi practices
Dhikr
Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
The practice of Muraqaba and Dhikr have very close resemblance with the practices of the Jewish mystics. Muraqaba is very similar to the Merkavah practice, which is one of the meditations used by Kabbalists to attain higher states of consciousness.
Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the liturgy of which may include recitation, singing, instrumental music, dance, costumes, incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance. (Touma 1996, p.162).
Some places where Dhikr occurs on a regular basis include: The Islamic Educational and Cultural Research Center (Sacramento and Fremont, California).
Hadhra
Hadhra is a dance associated with dhikr practiced primarily in the Arab world. The word Hadhra means Presence in Arabic. Sometimes the sufi songs, or dances are performed as an appeal for the Presence of God, his prophets, and angels.
Qawwali
Qawwali is a form of devotional Sufi music common in India, Pakistan, Afganistan, Iran and Turkey. It is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and the Sabri Brothers.
Sama
Sama or Sema' (Arabic "listening") refers to Sufi worship practices involving music and dance (see Sufi whirling). In Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual. See Qawwali origins and Origin and History of the Qawwali, Adam Nayyar, Lok Virsa Research Centre, Islamabad, 1988.
Khalwa
Khalwa refers to a form of retreat, once widespread but now less common. A khalwa may be prescribed by the shaykh (spiritual advisor) of the murid or talib (student). Muslims believe that most of the prophets, and also Maryam (Mary) the mother of Issa (Jesus), lived in some form of seclusion at some point in their life. Prophet Muhammad, for example, used to retreat to the cave on Mount Hira where he received his first inspiration – but had been going there for many years prior to his meeting with the angel Gabriel. Similar examples include Moses' going into seclusion for 40 days in a cave in Mt. Sinai. Mary was in seclusion in the Jewish temple for a year, where only Zakariya was permitted to see her.
Sufi poetry
Sufism has produced a large body of poetry in Arabic, Kurdish, Persian, Punjabi, Sindhi, Turkish, Pashto language and Urdu languages which notably includes the works of Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, al-Hallaj, Ibn al-Farid, Hafez, Jami, Ibn Arabi, Farid Ud-Din Attar, Abdul Qader Bedil, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusro, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sachal Sarmast, Sultan Bahu as well as numerous traditions of devotional dance, such as Sufi whirling, and music, such as Qawwali.
Orders of Sufism
Traditional orders
The traditional Sufi orders emphasise the role of Sufism within Islam. Therefore, the Sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the Sunnah (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders are the Qadiri, Chisti, Oveyssi, Shadhili, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Ashrafi, Nimatullahi and Mevlevi. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the past Caliphates were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia.
For a longer list of Sufi orders see: Sufi orders
Non-traditional Sufi groups
In recent decades there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and Sufism Reoriented.
Universal Sufism
Mainstream Sufism is seen by its scholars and supporters as a part of traditional Islam. However, there is a major line of non-Islamic or offshoot-Islamic Sufi thought that sees Sufism as predating Islam and being a universal philosophy, that is independent of the Qur'an and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad. This view of Sufism has been popular in the Western world.[citation needed] Universal Sufism tends to be opposed by traditional Sufis, who argue that Sufism has always been practiced from within an Islamic framework and can never be separated from it. Inayat Khan founded Universal Sufism whilst also maintaining his lineage in Chisti Sufism, and Idries Shah advocated similar concepts. Irina Tweedie and Abdullah Dougan also taught outside the Islamic context while maintaining the connection to their Naqshbandi heritage.
There is also an attempt to reconsider Sufism in contemporary Muslim thought from within. According to this view, Sufism represents the core sense of Islam that gives insight to God and His creation.[citation needed]
Traditional Islamic schools of thought and Sufism
Islam traditionally consists of a number of groups. The two main divisions are the Sunnis and the Shia. Sunni Islam consists of a number of schools of legal jurisprudence (called Madhabs). Sufis do not define Sufism as a madhhab — what distinguishes a person as a Sufi is practicing Sufism, usually through association with a Sufi order. In this sense, traditional practitioners of Sufism don't see it as an exclusive group but just as a form of training necessary to cultivate spirituality and Ihsan in their lives.
W. Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third ___domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis.
The relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complicated due to the variety views held among them. Many traditional scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, helped it's propogation while there are also many traditional scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah whom opposed it as an innovation.
Controversy and criticism of Sufism
Sufism is a somewhat controversial subject today. For didactic convenience, the perspectives on Sufism as a part of Islam will be mentioned first and after that, the non Muslim groups who claim to be Sufi adherents.
Classic position on Sufism
Sufism emphasises non quantifiable matters (like states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises often used allegorical language which couldn't be read by an unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened some states to intoxication, which is forbidden in Islam). This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a deviant sufi was Abu Hilman.[5] One of the most vocal critics of such deviations from the Islamic creed was Ibn Taymiya.[6]
Criticism of Sufism
- Sufi masters have introduced many special prayers and devotional acts into their schools.
- The allegorical and often abstruse language used by Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of divine unity Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider equivalent to pantheism and therefore incompatible with Islam.[7] Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves. They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its delicate nature.[8]
Islamic positions on non-Islamic Sufi groups
The use of the title Sufi by many groups to refer to themselves and their use of traditional Sufi masters (notably Jalaluddin Rumi) as sources of inspiration as well as the existence of interpretations of classical Sufis texts by people who have no grounding in traditional Islamic sciences has created a group of non-Islamic Sufis. These are considered by certain conventional Islamic scholars as "beyond the pale" of the religion.[citation needed] However, Sufis are often encouraged to observe a higher degree of forebearance. Some Sufi Sheikhs, although having been initiated in an Islamic setting themselves, have gone on to teach more widely and to make it clear that students of Sufism need not formally embrace Islam.
See also
Notes
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica 2005
- ^ Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane. Paris: Vrin, 1954. p. 104.
- ^ http://www.khamush.com/sufism/persian_sufism.htm
- ^ Realities of THe HEart Lataif
- ^ http://www.sunnah.org/history/Scholars/abd_alqahir_albaghadadi.htm
- ^ For a detailed essay on the role that Sufism plays in traditional Islam, please refer to Place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam
- ^ http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=7&ID=6330&CATE=24
- ^ http://www.sunnah.org/publication/salafi/tosos.htm
References
- Inner Life, by Hazrat Inayat Khan
- Sufi Master
- Tasawwuf an Objective Appraisal by Maullana Allah Yar Khan, reviver Shaikh of Naqshbandia Owaisiah order of Sufism
- The Sufis by Idries Shah (1971) ISBN 0-385-07966-4
- The Way of the Sufi by Idries Shah (1991) ISBN 0-14-019252-
- "Yogis in Silence", by RKGupta published by M/s BRPC Ltd., Daryaganj, New Delhi
- "Sufism Beyond Religion",by RKGupta published by M/s BRPC Ltd., Daryaganj, New Delhi
- "Prem Pravartak Sufi" (in Hindi)by RKGupta published by M/s BRPC Ltd., Daryaganj, New Delhi
- "The Science and Philosophy of Spirituality", by RKGupta published by M/s BRPC Ltd., Daryaganj, New Delhi
- "Sufi Santmat-Darshan aur Vigyan" ( in Hindi) by RKGupta published by M/s BRPC Ltd., Daryaganj, New Delhi
- The Rules of Secrets of the Naqshbandi Order by Omar Ali Shah (1998) ISBN 2-909347-09-5
- [1][2][3] Excrepts/Books by Abdul Qadir Jilani
- [4][5] Excrepts/Books by Ibn Arabi
- Awakening of the Human Spirit, by Hazrat Inayat Khan
- Colby, Frederick. The Subtleties of the Ascension: Lata'if Al-Miraj: Early Mystical Sayings on Muhammad's Heavenly Journey. City: Fons Vitae, 2006.
- Ernst, Carl. The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. Boulder: Shambhala, 1997.