Climate change refers to the variation in the Earth's global climate or in regional climates over time. It describes changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities.
In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming. In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations.[1]
For information on temperature measurements over various periods, and the data sources available, see temperature record. For attribution of climate change over the past century, see attribution of recent climate change.
Climate change factors
Climate changes reflect variations within the Earth's atmosphere, processes in other parts of the Earth such as oceans and ice caps, and the impact of human activity. The external factors that can shape climate are often called climate forcings and include such processes as variations in solar radiation, the Earth's orbit, and greenhouse gas concentrations.
Variations within the Earth's climate
Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere, and is a chaotic non-linear dynamical system. On the other hand, climate — the average state of weather — is fairly stable and predictable. Climate includes the average temperature, amount of precipitation, days of sunlight, and other variables that might be measured at any given site. However, there are also changes within the Earth's environment that can affect the climate. According to NASA the average global temperature is currently 14.6C.
Glaciation
Glaciers are recognized as one of the most sensitive indicators of climate change, advancing substantially during climate cooling (e.g., the Little Ice Age) and retreating during climate warming on moderate time scales. Glaciers grow and collapse, both contributing to natural variability and greatly amplifying externally-forced changes. For the last century, however, glaciers have been unable to regenerate enough ice during the winters to make up for the ice lost during the summer months (see glacier retreat).
The most significant climate processes of the last several million years are the glacial and interglacial cycles of the present ice age. Though shaped by orbital variations, the internal responses involving continental ice sheets and 130 m sea-level change certainly played a key role in deciding what climate response would be observed in most regions. Other changes, including Heinrich events, Dansgaard–Oeschger events and the Younger Dryas show the potential for glacial variations to influence climate even in the absence of specific orbital changes.
Ocean variability
On the scale of decades, climate changes can also result from interaction of the atmosphere and oceans. Many climate fluctuations, the best known being the El Niño Southern oscillation but also including the Pacific decadal oscillation, the North Atlantic oscillation, and the Arctic oscillation, owe their existence at least in part to different ways that heat can be stored in the oceans and move between different reservoirs. On longer time scales ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat, and can dramatically affect climate.
The memory of climate
More generally, most forms of internal variability in the climate system can be recognized as a form of hysteresis, meaning that the current state of climate reflects not only the inputs, but also the history of how it got there. For example, a decade of dry conditions may cause lakes to shrink, plains to dry up and deserts to expand. In turn, these conditions may lead to less rainfall in the following years. In short, climate change can be a self-perpetuating process because different aspects of the environment respond at different rates and in different ways to the fluctuations that inevitably occur.
Non-climate factors driving climate change
Greenhouse gases
Current studies indicate that radiative forcing by greenhouse gases is the primary cause of global warming. Greenhouse gases are also important in understanding Earth's climate history. According to these studies, the greenhouse effect, which is the warming produced as greenhouse gases trap heat, plays a key role in regulating Earth's temperature.
Over the last 600 million years, carbon dioxide concentrations have varied from perhaps >5000 ppm to less than 200 ppm, due primarily to the impact of geological processes and biological innovations. It has been argued by Veizer et al., 1999, that variations in greenhouse gas concentrations over tens of millions of years have not been well correlated to climate change, with plate tectonics perhaps playing a more dominant role. More recently Royer et al. [1] have used the CO2-climate correlation to derive a value for the climate sensitivity. There are several examples of rapid changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere that do appear to correlate to strong warming, including the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum, the Permian–Triassic extinction event, and the end of the Varangian snowball earth event.
During the modern era, the naturally rising carbon dioxide levels are implicated as the primary cause of global warming since 1950. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2007, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 in 2005 was 379ppm3 compared to the pre-industrial levels of 280ppm3 in other words its 0.02% to 0.03% in the atmosphere this has been much higher in the long history of earth.
Thermodynamics and Le Chatelier's principle explain the characteristics of the dynamic equilibrium of a gas in solution such as the vast amount of C02 held in solution in the world's oceans moving into and returning from the atmosphere. These principals can be observed as bubbles which rise in a pot of water heated on a stove, or a in a glass of cold beer allowed to sit at room temperature; gases dissolved in liquids are released under certain circumstances.
Plate tectonics
On the longest time scales, plate tectonics will reposition continents, shape oceans, build and tear down mountains and generally serve to define the stage upon which climate exists. More recently, plate motions have been implicated in the intensification of the present ice age when, approximately 3 million years ago, the North and South American plates collided to form the Isthmus of Panama and shut off direct mixing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Solar variation
The sun is the ultimate source of essentially all heat in the climate system. The energy output of the sun, which is converted to heat at the Earth's surface, is an integral part of shaping the Earth's climate. On the longest time scales, the sun itself is getting brighter with higher energy output; as it continues its main sequence, this slow change or evolution affects the Earth's atmosphere. Early in Earth's history, it is thought to have been too cold to support liquid water at the Earth's surface, leading to what is known as the Faint young sun paradox.
On more modern time scales, there are also a variety of forms of solar variation, including the 11-year solar cycle and longer-term modulations. However, the 11-year sunspot cycle does not manifest itself clearly in the climatological data. Solar intensity variations are considered to have been influential in triggering the Little Ice Age, and for some of the warming observed from 1900 to 1950. The cyclical nature of the sun's energy output is not yet fully understood; it differs from the very slow change that is occurring to the sun as it ages and evolves.
Orbital variations
In their impact on climate, orbital variations are in some sense an extension of solar variability, because slight variations in the Earth's orbit lead to changes in the distribution and abundance of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface. Such orbital variations, known as Milankovitch cycles, are a highly predictable consequence of basic physics due to the mutual interactions of the Earth, its moon, and the other planets. These variations are considered the driving factors underlying the glacial and interglacial cycles of the present ice age. Subtler variations are also present, such as the repeated advance and retreat of the Sahara desert in response to orbital precession.
Volcanism
A single eruption of the kind that occurs several times per century can impact climate, causing cooling for a period of a few years. For example, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 is barely visible on the global temperature profile. Huge eruptions, known as large igneous provinces, occur only a few times every hundred million years, but can reshape climate for millions of years and cause mass extinctions. Initially, scientists thought that the dust emitted into the atmosphere from large volcanic eruptions was responsible for the cooling by partially blocking the transmission of solar radiation to the Earth's surface. However, measurements indicate that most of the dust thrown in the atmosphere returns to the Earth's surface within six months.
Volcanoes are also part of the extended carbon cycle. Over very long (geological) time periods, they release carbon dioxide from the earth's interior, counteracting the uptake by sedimentary rocks and other geological carbon sinks. However, this contribution is insignificant compared to the current anthropogenic emissions. The US Geological Survey estimates that human activities generate 150 times the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by volcanoes. [2]
Human influences on climate change
Anthropogenic factors are acts by humans that change the environment and influence climate. Various theories of human-induced climate change have been debated for many years. In the late 1800s, the Rain follows the plow theory had many adherents in the western United States.
The biggest factor of present concern is the increase in CO2 levels due to emissions from fossil fuel combustion, followed by aerosols (particulate matter in the atmosphere) which exerts a cooling effect and cement manufacture. Other factors, including land use, ozone depletion, animal agriculture [3] and deforestation also impact climate.
Fossil fuels
Beginning with the industrial revolution in the 1850s and accelerating ever since, the human consumption of fossil fuels has elevated CO2 levels from a concentration of ~280 ppm to more than 380 ppm today. These increases are projected to reach more than 560 ppm before the end of the 21st century. It is known that carbon dioxide levels are substantially higher now than at any time in the last 800,000 years [4] Along with rising methane levels, these changes are anticipated to cause an increase of 1.4–5.6 °C between 1990 and 2100 (see global warming).
Aerosols
Anthropogenic aerosols, particularly sulphate aerosols from fossil fuel combustion, are believed to exert a cooling influence; see graph.[2] This, together with natural variability, is believed to account for the relative "plateau" in the graph of 20th century temperatures in the middle of the century.
Cement manufacture
Cement manufacturing is the third largest cause of man-made carbon dioxide emissions. While fossil fuel combustion and deforestation each produce significantly more carbon dioxide (CO2), cement-making is responsible for approximately 2.5% of total worldwide emissions from industrial sources (energy plus manufacturing sectors).[5]
Land use
Prior to widespread fossil fuel use, humanity's largest impact on local climate is likely to have resulted from land use. Irrigation, deforestation, and agriculture fundamentally change the environment. For example, they change the amount of water going into and out of a given ___location. They also may change the local albedo by influencing the ground cover and altering the amount of sunlight that is absorbed. For example, there is evidence to suggest that the climate of Greece and other Mediterranean countries was permanently changed by widespread deforestation between 700 BC and 1 AD (the wood being used for shipbuilding, construction and fuel), with the result that the modern climate in the region is significantly hotter and drier, and the species of trees that were used for shipbuilding in the ancient world can no longer be found in the area.
A controversial hypothesis by William Ruddiman called the early anthropocene hypothesis [6] suggests that the rise of agriculture and the accompanying deforestation led to the increases in carbon dioxide and methane during the period 5000–8000 years ago. These increases, which reversed previous declines, may have been responsible for delaying the onset of the next glacial period, according to Ruddimann's overdue-glaciation hypothesis.
In modern times, a 2007 Jet Propulsion Laboratory study [3] found that the average temperature of California has risen about 2 degrees over the past 50 years, with a much higher increase in urban areas. The change was attributed mostly to extensive human development of the landscape.
Livestock
According to a 2006 United Nations report, livestock is responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. This however includes land usage change, meaning deforestation in order to create grazing land. In the Amazon, 70% of deforestation is to make way for grazing land, so this is the major factor in the 2006 UN FAO report, which was the first agricultural report to include land usage change into the radiative forcing of livestock. In addition to CO2 emissions, livestock produces 65% of human-induced nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of human-induced methane (which has 23 times the global warming potential of CO2)[7].
Interplay of factors
If a certain forcing (for example, solar variation) acts to change the climate, then there may be mechanisms that act to amplify or reduce the effects. These are called positive and negative feedbacks. As far as is known, the climate system is generally stable with respect to these feedbacks: positive feedbacks do not "run away". Part of the reason for this is the existence of a powerful negative feedback between temperature and emitted radiation: radiation increases as the fourth power of absolute temperature.
However, a number of important positive feedbacks do exist. The glacial and interglacial cycles of the present ice age provide an important example. It is believed that orbital variations provide the timing for the growth and retreat of ice sheets. However, the ice sheets themselves reflect sunlight back into space and hence promote cooling and their own growth, known as the ice-albedo feedback. Further, falling sea levels and expanding ice decrease plant growth and indirectly lead to declines in carbon dioxide and methane. This leads to further cooling.
Similarly, rising temperatures caused, for example, by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases could lead to retreating snow lines, revealing darker ground underneath, and consequently result in more absorption of sunlight.
Water vapor, methane, and carbon dioxide can also act as significant positive feedbacks, their levels rising in response to a warming trend, thereby accelerating that trend. Water vapor acts strictly as a feedback (excepting small amounts in the stratosphere), unlike the other major greenhouse gases, which can also act as forcings.
More complex feedbacks involve the possibility of changing circulation patterns in the ocean or atmosphere. For example, a significant concern in the modern case is that melting glacial ice from Greenland will interfere with sinking waters in the North Atlantic and inhibit thermohaline circulation. This could affect the Gulf Stream and the distribution of heat to Europe and the east coast of the United States.
Other potential feedbacks are not well understood and may either inhibit or promote warming. For example, it is unclear whether rising temperatures promote or inhibit vegetative growth, which could in turn draw down either more or less carbon dioxide. Similarly, increasing temperatures may lead to either more or less cloud cover.[4] Since on balance cloud cover has a strong cooling effect, any change to the abundance of clouds also impacts climate.[5]
In all, it seems likely that overall climate feedbacks are negative, as systems with overall positive feedback are highly unstable.
Monitoring the current status of climate
Scientists use "Indicator time series" that represent the many aspects of climate and ecosystem status. The time history provides a historical context. Current status of the climate is also monitored with climate indices.[6][7][8][9]
Evidence for climatic change
Evidence for climatic change is taken from a variety of sources that can be used to reconstruct past climates. Most of the evidence is indirect—climatic changes are inferred from changes in indicators that reflect climate, such as vegetation, dendrochronology, ice cores, sea level change, and glacial retreat.
Pollen analysis
Also known as palynology, is based on the notion that the geographical distributions of plant species varies due to particular climate requirements, and that these requirements are the same today as they have been in the past (Uniformitarianism). Each plant species has a distinctively shaped pollen grain, and if these fall into oxygen-free environments (depositional environments), such as peat bogs, they resist decay. Changes in the pollen found in different levels of the bog indicate, by implication, changes in climate.
One limitation of this method is the fact that pollen can be transported considerable distances by wind, wildlife and in some cases running water. Certain depositional sites such as mires may also have been effected by humans through peat cutting for fuel. This has to be taken into consideration when interpretation the pollen record.
Beetles
Remains of beetles are common in freshwater and land sediments. Different species of beetles tend to be found under different climatic conditions. Knowledge of the present climatic range of the different species, and the age of the sediments in which remains are found, allows past climatic conditions to be inferred.[citation needed]
Glacial geology
Advancing glaciers leave behind moraines and other features that often have datable material in them, recording the time when a glacier advanced and deposited a feature. Similarly, the lack of glacier cover can be identified by the presence of datable soil or volcanic tephra horizons. Glaciers are considered one of the most sensitive climate indicators by the IPCC, and their recent observed variations provide a global signal of climate change. See Retreat of glaciers since 1850.
Historical records
Historical records include cave paintings, depth of grave digging in Greenland, diaries, documentary evidence of events (such as 'frost fairs' on the Thames) and evidence of areas of vine cultivation. Daily weather reports have been kept since 1873, and the Royal Society has encouraged the collection of data since the seventeenth century. Parish records are often a good source of climate data.
Examples of climate change
Climate change has continued throughout the entire history of Earth. The field of paleoclimatology has provided information of climate change in the ancient past, supplementing modern observations of climate.
- Climate of the deep past
- Climate of the last 500 million years
- Climate of recent glaciations
- Recent climate
Climate change and economics
There has been a debate about how climate change could affect the world economy. An October 29, 2006 report by former Chief Economist and Senior Vice-President of the World Bank Nicholas Stern states that climate change could affect growth, which could be cut by one-fifth unless drastic action is taken. (Report's stark warning on climate)
Political advisor Frank Luntz recommended the Bush Administration adopt the term "Climate Change" in preference to global warming, while it worked to discredit the idea of global warming science.
Climate change in popular culture
The issue of climate change has entered popular culture since the late 20th century. Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted that "there's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years, and what is out there in the popular culture".[8] An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming.[9]
Climate Change and biodiversity
Some of the most immediate effects of recent climate change are becoming apparent through impacts on biodiversity. The life cycles of many wild plants and animals are closely linked to the passing of the seasons; climatic changes can lead to interdependent pairs of species (e.g. a wild flower and its pollinating insect) losing synchronisation, if, for example, one has a cycle dependent on day length and the other on temperature or precipitation. In principle, at least, this could lead to extinctions or changes in the distribution and abundance of species. One phenomenon is the movement of species northwards in Europe. A recent study by Butterfly Conservation in the UK, [10], has shown that relative common species with a southerly distribution have moved north, whilst scarce upland species have become rarer and lost territory towards the south. This picture has been mirrored across several invertebrate groups. Drier summers could lead to more periods of drought[10], potentially affecting many species of animal and plant. For example, in the UK during the drought year of 2006 significant numbers of trees dies or showed dieback on light sandy soils. Wetter, milder winters might impact on temperate mammals or insects by preventing them hibernating or entering torpor during periods when food is scarce. One predicted change is the ascendance of 'weedy' or opportunistic species at the expense of scarcer species with narrower or more specialised ecological requirements. One example could be the expanses of bluebell seen in many woodlands in the UK. These have an early growing and flowering season before competing weeds can develop and the tree canopy closes. Milder winters can allow weeds to overwinter as adult plants or germinate sooner, whilst trees leaf earlier, reducing the length of the window for bluebells to complete their life cycle. Organisations such as Wildlife Trust, World Wide Fund for Nature, Birdlife International and the Audubon Society are actively monitoring and research the effects of climate change on biodiversity. They also advance policies in areas such as landscape scale conservation to promote adaptation to climate change. A more detailed review of these issues can be found here [11]
See also
Heat Vaporization of Liquid Gasoline or Petrol fuel as a means to increase vehicle fuel mileage and decrease engine emissions,
For complete info visit, www.byronwine.com/files/1992%20vapor.pdf
By Frieda Mind
The intended purpose of this project was to more thoroughly utilize gasoline when burning in a spark ignited (SI) internal combustion engine (ICE). Gasoline SI engines have continually been getting further refinements and tuning yet one thing is the same today as 100 years ago. Either if by carburetor or an electronic fuel injection system, the gasoline is introduced to the engine’s intake stroke at relatively the same temperature as it was 100 years ago. Today’s cars have catalytic converters and smog control devices to re-burn most the unburned fuel remaining in car’s exhaust. Wouldn’t it be better if, an engine used that extra fuel and increased its work by burning the fuel properly the first time? There have been people over the past 100 years who have pointed out this problem and offered solutions. The most notably might be Charles Pogue who was issued US patent# 2,026,798 in 1936 for his fuel saving invention. With conventional SI fuel systems only the gasoline with the opportunity to vaporize by splashing onto a hot piston head, valve or other sizzling engine part prior to being ignited by the spark plug, will be of any help in doing work for the engines power stroke. Any residual fuel vaporized by the flash of burning fuel might also assist the power stroke but it would need to happen quickly and remaining oxygen is scarce and much hotter and less effective. This project involved studying the works and patents of Pogue along with, Ray Covey’s (Patent# 4,368,163), Loren and Kelly Naylor, The Carb Research Center of Foyil Oklahoma, Harold Schwartz, Robert Shelton, Ivor Newberry, Forrest Gerrard and others. The works in this paper involved studying principals of vaporizing gasoline to a vaporous state then burning the vaporized gasoline fuel in an SI engine, followed up with a narrative on utilizing these principals with our current available technologies. Utilizing waste heat from an engine to preheat the gasoline fuel to a vapor prior to introducing to the engine is beneficial in causing the engine to achieve more efficient gas mileage while cleaning up tailpipe emissions. Burning propane in SI powered vehicles has proven to lengthen the engine life, run cooler, and lessen buildup of carbon and sludge. Vapor will also cut down on unburned gasoline from splashing onto oil cylinder walls and causing increased engine wear. This description explains a fairly complete method to heat gasoline to a highly gassiest state of individual gasoline molecules. It will also describe a method for introducing the gasoline vapor into the engine as fuel via a spray bar or duel fuel mixer. Both these methods are found on vehicles with propane or liquefied petroleum (LP) gas fuel systems. The vaporized fuel can also be introduced by fuel injection when using vapor-fuel type fuel injectors in conjunction with a computer and a small number of sensors for data input and actuators to maintain a proper fuel heat range and intake air flow. The narrative describes a method to utilize the engines hot exhaust stream to heat up the gasoline or petrol to the mentioned gassiest state. Propane turns from a liquid to a vapor at -44F degrees or above unless under pressure. At 100F degrees propane will exert 172 pounds per Square inch (PSI) on the walls of whatever container it is in. Todays gasoline does not vaporize fully till it is heated to over 200F degrees. When using vaporized gasoline as a fuel, the engines hot exhaust is used to heat the fuel to the point of becoming a vapor. Visually inspecting this highly explosive gasoline vapor vented from an untapped nozzle, it has the identical appearance of propane or butane vapor when venting, as in situations of refilling a propane tank. For aid in understanding how this system works refer to the labeled diagrams and photos. This projects particular system was built for and tested on a Nissan/Datsun 1600cc overhead cam engine as found in late 1960s early 1970s Datsun series. This system will work on any gasoline internal combustion engine and considerably well in certain hybrid electric configurations. How exhaust is used to vaporize the gasoline, This narrative will start with the route of the hot exhaust flowing from the engines’ exhaust ports. Right after exiting the engines manifold exhaust ports the exhaust meets a junction with two separate directions to flow. One direction is its usual flow out the exhaust system. The other direction diverts the exhaust flow past a coil of stainless steel (SS) tubing. This (SS) coil is a heat exchanger inserted directly in route of hot exhaust flow. This stainless steel heat exchanger creates turbulence in the exhaust flow much like a muffler. The exhaust is forced to flow around and through this restrictive mass and transfer heat to the (SS) heat exchanger. The gasoline pumped into this very same (SS) coil is pushed through the tubing and forced under low pressure to exit the other end of the tubing in a vaporous state. The outer mild steel body of this heat exchanger/exhaust manifold can be built from modifying a steel tube exhaust manifold (racing header type) used in race cars and seen in drawing (A). Directly downstream from where exhaust header is bolted to engine head each individual pipe of header has a passage pipe drilled, fitted and welded to it. On a 4 cylinder engine there would be 4 pipes and 4 of these passages or crossovers from each pipe. A six cylinder engine would have a header with 6 pipes and 6 shorter cross over pipes. These crossover pipes lead from the individual header pipes to the sidewall of a larger pipe that is positioned perpendicular and alongside each of the mentioned header pipes. This larger pipe called the heat exchanger housing pipe, can be made from a length of pipe such as a section of exhaust pipe used on large trucks and buses. The pipe in the pictures has an inside diameter of 3 and quarter (3.25)inches. This housing pipe has positioned within it a coiled stainless steel heat exchanger (photo D) that is securely fastened in place to a faceplate by flared tubing fittings. The wall on other end of heat exchanger housing pipe has welded to it a centered positioning pin. The positioning pin is to give the (SS) heat exchanger coil a place to rest against when coil is inserted into housing pipe and faceplate is bolted in place. The faceplate works as a sealed lid and it has machined bolts positioned around its perimeter for secure bolting. The face plate and the housing flange are sealed by either a solid flange gasket or by using a mix of extreme high temperature engine sealant that is thickened with tiny scrapes of ceramic insulation. The entire manifold assembly is wrapped in high temperature ceramic insulation covered with a heat reflective woven material. This type of material is used in ship engine rooms and other industrial applications.
Prior to pumping fuel into the heat exchanger tubing, the flared fittings (in photo) that secure the (SS) coil to the inside of housing faceplate are tested for leaks. On the outlet end of the stainless steel coil is located a well insulated surge chamber. This small surge chamber is used to accommodate and store a small amount of hot vapor to be available for supplying short bursts of power on demand in quick acceleration situations.
Fitted and also welded onto heat exchanger housing pipe in addition to crossover pipes is an exit pipe. This extra pipe (seen in photo with hose clamp around it) is the same size (or larger) to that of the engines stock exhaust pipe. This pipe provides a route for the hot exhaust gases to exit the heat exchanger after heating the (SS) coil. The exhaust continues out the heat exchangers exit pipe and continues to run under the car and out the back.
When the exhaust stream exits the engines exhaust ports and follows the conventional route out the original header pipes (avoiding the mentioned heat exchanger) these header pipes will converge into a larger junction pipe. Located within this larger pipe at this conversion ___location is a ‘gate’ for closing off the exhaust flow (or not). This gate can be actuated by, electronics, hydraulics, pneumatics, mechanical, telepathic or cable means, to open or close the flow of exhaust passing through the header convergence pipe. Closing this gate has the effect of forcing most the hot exhaust into the heat exchanger where it can do work to bring up the temperature of the incoming gasoline contained within the coil of stainless steel (SS) fuel line. The volume and temperature of exhaust passing through the heat exchanger dictates available fuel vapor heating capacity.
Beyond the gate the two divergent exhaust streams can continue out the back of the vehicle as separate pipes or can re-converge into one pipe after the gate then exit out the vehicles rear. Regulating a proper heat range, Regulating temperature is critical for keeping incoming gasoline heated to proper ranges. When vehicle idles it uses less fuel and also generates less heat, running under a load is opposite more fuel needed and more available heat. Ample heat to the fuel is provided under most operating conditions but problem arises when operating in varying and crowded traffic conditions when it becomes difficult to regulate the temperatures quick enough to compensate for the varied range of engine RPMs in stop and go driving. The insulated surge chamber with a responsive manifold gate can make this type of driving a possibility for vehicles with a traditional drive train, but it is difficult to design this type of system for stop and go driving conditions. A true hybrid electric/ICE system with a well designed and responsive vaporized gasoline carburetion system would be more practical. The best systems would be an ICE coupled to a battery bank to generate electricity, and a large electric motor to drive the car and regenerate power when braking. A more advanced hybrid design that would work very well with this type of vapor fuel technology would be one like the Toyota hybrid electric system. A Hybrid Electric system designed so regenerative braking and propulsion using an electric motor drawing power from a small battery bank recharged by, or charged directly from either a diesel or a vapor fuel injected gasoline powered engine. This type of system would allow the gasoline SI engine to provide power to recharge the batteries and assist with power on hills and loads. It will also allow the engine to operate within a closer power RPM range. With less variations in engine RPMs it becomes simpler to adjust the exhaust gates position in-order to maintain a proper temperature range. Recapping from the top, exhaust comes out cylinder head exhaust ports to header pipes and continues down individual pipes, through the junction gate and out rear of vehicle. The exhaust gasses chose the least restricted route. Now partially or fully close the gate valve at the end of the header and exhaust gasses will be diverted into the heat exchanger housing pipe and forced past and thru the stainless steel (SS) tubing coil to heat the gasoline before exiting out the exhaust exit pipe. Much heat is absorbed by the gasoline passing thru coils as the gasoline passes from a liquid to a vaporous state in passing thru coil. The gasoline is slightly pressurized and maintained at a consistent low pressure by using one-way, ball check valves that make it impossibly for fuel to leak back out of the heat exchanger. Stainless Steel (SS) heat exchanger at heart of system, The (SS) coil is actually a double coil that is wound from (one quarter inch [inside diameter]) tubing. When completed the entire double coil we wound was about 3 inches in diameter and 13 inches in length and if stretched out it would be over 16 feet long. Rolling this coil requires a lathe that is manually turned with a set of pipe or monkey wrenches. The inner coil is turned around a small pipe as seen in photo. One end of this pipe is locked in lathes chuck. The chuck end of the pipe has a slot grooved into it. This slot will accept a short length of the tubing. About 3-4 inches of the tubing is inserted thru this slot in pipe after pipe is locked in lathe chuck. It is important to keep the ends of the coil tubing straight so they can later have flared fittings installed to allow bolting coil to heat exchanger faceplate as seen in photo. Start manually winding the (SS) tubing around the pipe after it is securely locked in lathe chuck. Do not turn the lathes motor on!. Even at a low speed it will turn too fast to coil tubing safely. You are using the lathe as a way to manually coil the tubing. Have a second person manually turn the lathe by using two pipe wrenches. This person will use two pipe wrenches to grip and turn the far end of coiling pipe, while another person feeds the (SS) tubing around the spinning pipe. It is important to provide spacing around the tube for hot exhaust gasses to pass by tubes so use a sturdy, squared piece of wood (or something that will not scratch the tubing) with dimensions of (3/8-1/2 inch) by (3/8-1/2 inch) and about 8 to 10 inches long. This tool is used to maintain a consistent slot between the tubing for the entire length it is spun onto lathe. The person handling the tubing holds this spacing tool alongside tubing as it is pulled around pipe and uses spacing tool to establish a set distance between last individual winding of coiled tube with coil they are winding. Once the pipes inner coil of tubing is wound to proper length, the entire gizmo, pipe and all is removed from lathe. The next step is to wind the outer coil around the already wound inner coil. For winding the outer coil a piece of pipe that is shorter and has a larger diameter than the original pipe locked in chuck. This larger pipes diameter is just large enough to slip over the first coil of tubing and is only as long as the length of the wound inner coil. The piped coil gizmo with now 2 pipes and one wound (inner) coil is positioned back into the lathe chuck and tightened. The second coil is wound the same way as the first was, but in the opposite direction over the first coil using the spacer tool, and pulled back to the starting end of the inner coil. The gizmo is again removed from the lathe and spacer pipe is slid out from between coils and starting end of quarter inch (SS) tubing is slid out from slotted grove in pipe. The end of the outer SS coil is carefully bent 90 degrees so to be aimed the same direction as end of inner coil tubing and both ends are then attached to the inside of face plate of heat exchanger housing with SS flare fittings. Be careful to slip the flare fitting over the tubing end prior to flaring the tubing. Also be sure both ends of coil will reach face plate in proper position and one end is not longer than the other. Also it is important when coiling the tubing that one does not end up with a coil that is too long and will not fit within the length of the heat exchanger housing pipe. It is also important to assure that one stops the coiling of outer coil with enough length needed to bend the tubing end 90 degrees to safely and securely plumb it to inside wall of heat exchanger faceplate. It should not be difficult to do the geometry needed to calculate how many inner and outer coils one would expect to get over a given distance. The formula to determine the circumference of a coil is 2(3.14)R. The R is the ratio or half the diameter.
The surge chamber could be a length of pipe positioned in a hot spot directly alongside the header and insulated to maintain heat. It could also be fitted inside the heat exchanger housing with one end of SS coil shorter or longer to accommodate the surge chamber. The surge chamber in photograph (D) is 3-4 times larger than what is needed and when this large it will become harder to keep insulated and hot.
It is highly recommended that all fuel lines in system located downstream from the (SS) coil in heat exchanger be constructed from (SS) tubing and the line that passes from the heat exchanger to the engine intake manifold be constructed from braided/flexible (SS) tubing.
Welded to the faceplate in photo (D) is a channel used to convey the vaporous gasses from the coiled tubing in the heat exchanger over to the external surge tank. A better and simpler design would be to use a short piece of pipe with a gravity fed trap on one end used to trap and later remove all crud and mysterious? solids that fail to vaporize with the gasoline. (Examining these trapped solids leads one to ponder just what compounds are being used as “additives” in our gasoline). This trap pipe would have plumbed to it a flexible (SS) tubing connected to the carburetion system located on engines intake manifold (diagram C).
Understanding how system works, The operating principal of this system is as follows. There are two methods to introduce the fuel to engine combustion chamber, and referring to diagram B might be helpful at this point. One route is for liquid gasoline when engine is first started and the other method is for the vaporized gasoline once system is warmed up. On more advanced applications both tasks can be done by fuel injection. This system could also work using a conventional fuel injection system or carburetor when fuel is liquid and a propane type mixer bar (diagram C) when operating in vapor mode. There is one modification to the mixing bar that needs to be added. The incoming air being pulled thru the venturi, past throttle plate and past the spray bar below will cool down the metal spray bar and cause the vaporized gasoline to condense back to liquid on the walls of the spray bar. For this reason it is important to position another piece of pipe (cut in half length wise) alongside and cupped around the spray bar but actually not in contact with the spray bar. This outer pipe is positioned slightly upstream of the spray bar and works to block the flow of incoming air from hitting the spray bar. Diagram C has an example the spraybar and heat shield or half-pipe. It is important to note that all fuel lines between the heat exchanger coil in addition to being stainless steel should also be well insulated, along with insulating the heat exchanger housing and surge chamber to lessen possibility of gasoline condensing to liquid. A good insulation and wrapping for this task is again the ceramic type insulation and cloth wrapping with the reflective coating already mentioned. The fuel is conveyed from vehicles fuel tank thru vehicles stock tubing routed to engine compartment. Once at engine compartment the fuel is diverted by electric actuated valves (#1 diagram B) either of 2 routes. One route remains in the vehicles stock fuel system and on to carburetor or fuel injection(#s 2A & 3A diagram B). This route is used on starting and warm up mode only. The other route uses an electric fuel pump(#2 diagram B) that pushes the fuel thru a propane vacuum fuel lock (VFF) (#5 diagram B) than on into heat exchanger (#7 diagram B) to be vaporized.
In order to operate vapor system the fuel needs to be maintained at a suitable pressure. Also at times when engine stops running for any reason the flow shuts down automatically using the VFF and a vacuum actuated switch (#6) will shut down power to the relay to the electric fuel pump. Lastly the fuel can not back flow from the hot heat exchanger into the vehicles fuel tank nor allow gas vapors to release to atmosphere. These safety features are maintained by plumbing the electric fuel pump (#2) into a tee junction (#3). This tee has a pressure regulating one-way ball check valve (#4) on a tee exit that is set to open at about 5-6 pounds per square inch (PSI) and routes fuel exiting the tee from this check valve back to the fuel tank. This check valve component is designed to ensure a steady and regulated flow of fuel to the vapor system maintained at 5PSI or less.
The remaining exit from the said tee (#3) goes thru 2 one-way check valves (not shown) that are set to open at 3-5(PSI). One valve regulated at 3-5(PSI) would work fine here but duplicate valve(s) are a failsafe designed to stop back-flow of fuel thru tee. The fuel is than routed thru a propane fuel system vapor check valve (#5) commonly called a (VFF). The VFF remains open anytime the intake manifold maintains vacuum. The purpose of the intake manifold pressure actuated VFF valve is to shut off the flow of fuel entering the heat exchanger at times the engine is stalled or not running. The fuel is pumped thru VFF at 3-5(PSI) when engine is operating and has vacuum in its intake manifold. The fuel is pushed into the coiled (SS) heat exchanger (#7) as a liquid at 3-5(PSI) and exits heat exchanger as a vapor at 3-5(PSI) and forced into another tee where it can either go into the reservoir or conveyed to intake manifold and mixed with incoming air (diagram C and #9,#10 in diagram B) to power the engine. This tee also has a removable pipe that acts as a trap (not shown) and allows all solids that would not vaporize to accumulate via gravity. To clean out these mysterious solids the pipe is removed by unscrewing, cleaned and then replaced. Regulating how system operates The simple method we used for operating system was as follows. Mounted to our dashboard was a 3 position switch. One position was off and all fuel was naturally plumbed to stock fuel system. We used this position for starting, warm-up and to get us home in case of any vapor carburetion failures. The second position was to a diverter valve to switch the fuel flow from the stock carburetor thru the electric fuel pump than onto the heat exchanger. The third position was the same as the second with the addition of the electric fuel pump switched on as well. The vehicle is started in position one and once warmed up turned to position two till the carburator is starved for fuel than position 3 where the vapor fuel system takes over carburetion function. We also installed into the vehicles dash a cable for operating the exhaust gate as seen in photos. For more heat we would close the gate and the exhaust would be forced through the heat exchanger. Alongside the gate cable are two gauges normally used in small airplanes to monitor cylinder head temperature. We used these gauges first to monitor the vapor temperature as it went into the intake manifold and also to monitor the exhaust temperature as it left the heat exchanger. The conventional non hybrid electric car will be easier to operate in the vapor mode if the road conditions are consistent and it is possible to maintain a steady RPM range. Varying RPMs will make it more difficult to maintain an exhaust gate position heat range that the engine will like. Use this knowledge at your own risk while exercising an utmost respect for the dangerous nature of gasoline if reading this leads to further studying of this art and possibly building your own vaporized gasoline carburetion system. The authors take no responsibility for any damages or injuries incurred from any person(s) working in this art. Gasoline like propane is highly flammable and explosive, handle with extreme care! It seems the oil companies and the auto companies cannot figure this out so lets work to enlighten them on how to build a car properly. People are dieing because of wars over dirty crude oil and the earths atmosphere is getting destroyed and causing global climate change while many powerful governmental world leaders are running out of common sense and empathy for the citizens of the world. It looks like it is up to “We the People” once again to fix things and start leading our supposed leaders. The power for making positive change is in all our hands! We just need to start believing it and assert our responsibility to reclaim this power. We also must remain human so we can laugh, cry, shout, cuss, inspire, nurture and share. Have fun and be safe, FM
Photo captions (numbers on back)
1. Using lathe to wind first coil around grooved pipe locked in lathe. (pipe wrenches not in photo)
2. Showing how tubing end is positioned into grooved pipe that is locked into lathe chuck.
3. View of positioning of outer pipe around inner coil before pulling second outer coil on lathe.
4. Close up view of double SS coil securely fitted to inside of heat exchanger faceplate with flared fittings.
5. View of SS coil and oversized surge tank with front of heat exchanger on left side.
6. Exhaust header with heat exchanger disassembled from header.
7. Exhaust header with SS coil positioned inside. Note hose clamp positioned around heat exchanger exhaust pipe. Piece of wire under clamp is end of sending wire to the exhaust temperature gauge on dash.
8. Bottom view of exhaust manifold with sample of ceramic insulation alongside.
9. Engine side view of complete exhaust manifold with re-convergence pipe bolted to flange set.
10. Close up view of exhaust gate, note cobwebs from sitting in basement.
11. Rear view of exhaust manifold with re-convergence pipe disconnected.
12. Close up view of two separate exhaust routes before they re-converge.
13. Top view of gate at bottom of photo. Bolt on left is to secure outer wall of gate cable. Pipes on right side of flanges are the re-convergence pipe.
14. View of cable on left side, Vapor temperature gauge in center and exhaust temperature gauge on right.
To find out more or view this info for free on the web visit;
http://byronw.www1host.com/ unreverentone@yahoo.com
References
- Emanuel, K. A. (2005) Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years., Nature, 436; 686-688 Template:PDFlink
- IPCC. (2007) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis (summary for policy makers), IPCC.
- Jones, C. Climate Change: Facts and Impacts [online]. Available from: What effects are we seeing now and what is still to come?
- Miller, C. and Edwards, P. N. (ed.)(2001) Changing the Atmosphere: Expert Knowledge and Environmental Governance, MIT Press
- Ruddiman, W. F. (2003) The anthropogenic greenhouse era began thousands of years ago, Climate Change 61 (3): 261-293
- Ruddiman, W. F. (2005) Plows, Plagues and Petroleum: How Humans Took Control of Climate, Princeton University Press
- Ruddiman, W. F., Vavrus, S. J. and Kutzbach, J. E. (2005) A test of the overdue-glaciation hypothesis, Quaternary Science Review, 24:11
- Schmidt, G. A., Shindel, D. T. and Harder, S. (2004) A note of the relationship between ice core methane concentrations and insolation GRL v31 L23206
Notes
- ^ http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/518.htm
- ^ IPCC TAR SPM figure 3
- ^ California Warming Attributed to Growth by Mandalit del Barco. Day to Day, National Public Radio. 30 Mar 2007.
- ^ http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/271.htm
- ^ For additional discussion of feedbacks relevant to ongoing climate change, see http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/260.htm
- ^ Arctic Change Indicators
- ^ Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem Indicators
- ^ How scientists study climate change: Some important research concepts used by scientists to study climate variations
- ^ UK Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership, Annual Report Card of current knowledge
- ^ Australian Drought and Climate Change, retrieved on June 7th 2007.
External links
- US EPA climate change and global warming website
- Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Climate change
- The Pew Center on Global Climate Change
- Template:PDFlink: National Academy of Sciences: Understanding and Responding to Climate change, Overview.
- Climate Change - An Information Statement of the American Meteorological Society, updated Feb. 2007.
- Summary of the Impacts of Climate Change from The Nature Conservancy
- Climate change and global warming - WWF (conservation organization).
- United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP): Climate Change Page
- Global Change by the Pacific Institute
- The UN Climate Change Secretariat
- Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (2004) by the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment – Summary by GreenFacts
- Special Feature in Spring 2007 issue of TATE ETC. magazine
- Climate Change - A popularized version of the IPCC Fourth Assessement Report, by GreenFacts
- Media Watch on Climate Change - Visual Interface to Current Articles from 150 News Media Sites
- Introduction to climate change: Lecture notes for meteorologists (WMO
- Climate Mitigation Action - Carbon Sequestration Model
BBC articles
- Nov 2006: Carbon emissions show sharp rise
- Oct 2006: Guide to Climate Change
- Nov 2005: 'Gas muzzlers' challenge Bush
- Oct 2005: Earth - melting in the heat?
- Oct 2005: Europe study shows climate risks
- Feb 2005: Greenhouse gases 'do warm oceans'
- Ongoing: BBC Climate Change Experiment