Wikipedia

Blackface

stile di make up teatrale
Versione del 26 set 2009 alle 18:36 di Bonavena (discussione | contributi)

Il Blackface, in senso stretto, è uno stile di makeup teatrale che prese piede negli Stati Uniti, dove fu utilizzato per evidenziare gli aspetti di certi archetipi del razzismo americano, specialmente quello del cosiddetto "happy-go-lucky darky delle piantagioni" o del "dandismo coon ".[1]

La trasformazione da bianco a "nero" nel manifesto di un minstrel show del 1900 di William H. West.

Il Blackface in senso più ampio include spettacoli similmente stereotipati che possono anche non comprendere la necessità del trucco nero al viso.

Il Blackface fu un'importante tradizione recitativa del Teatro americano per circa un secolo, a partire dal 1830. Divenne presto popolare anche in Europa, particolarmente in Gran Bretagna, dove la tradizione durò perfino più a lungo che negli Stati Uniti, comparendo nella TV di prima serata fino al 1978[2] e al 1981.[3] Sia negli Stati Uniti che in Gran Bretagna, il Blackface era più comunemente usato nella tradizione recitativa dei Minstrel show, pur precedendola, e sopravvivendo a lungo oltre il periodo d'oro dei minstrel show. Gli attori bianchi, per recitare in Blackface, usavano annerirsi la pelle con sughero bruciato e successivamente cerone nero o lucido per scarpe, ingigantendosi le labbra, portando spesso parrucche di lana, guanti, frac, oppure abiti da straccioni per completare la trasformazione. Con il passare degli anni, perfino attori neri recitarono in Blackface.

Gli stereotipi personificati nei ruoli standard dei Blackface Minstrel show giocarono un ruolo significativo nel radicarsi e nel proliferare di immagini e atteggiamenti razzisti e nella loro percezione in tutto il mondo. In alcuni ambienti, le caricature che furono eredità del Blackface persistono fino al giorno d'oggi e sono causa di controversie ancora in corso.

Verso la metà del XX Secolo, il cambiamento di atteggiamento verso il razzismo fece declinare fino alla scomparsa l'uso del trucco nero al viso, sia negli Stati Uniti che nel resto del mondo. Permane come artificio teatrale di uso molto limitato, soprattutto al di fuori degli Stati Uniti, e oggi è più comunemente usato come strumento di satira. Forse, l'effetto più duraturo del Blackface fu quello di aver presentato un prodromo della cultura afroamericana ad una platea internazionale, sebbene attraverso una lente distorta.[4][5] Blackface's groundbreaking appropriation,[4][5][6] exploitation, and assimilation[4] of African-American culture—as well as the inter-ethnic artistic collaborations that stemmed from it—were but a prologue to the lucrative packaging, marketing, and dissemination of African-American cultural expression and its myriad derivative forms in today's world popular culture.[5][7][8]

Storia

"Esibire la Blackness" e la forma degli archetipi razzisti

Non c'è accordo nell'individuare un singolo momento in cui sarebbe nato il Blackface. John Strausbaugh lo situa nella tradizione dell' "esibire la negritudine per il divertimento degli spettatori bianchi" che risale come minimo al 1441, quando in Portogallo vennero esibiti alcuni prigionieri neri catturati in Africa occidentale.[9] I bianchi portavano interpretavano abitualmente i personaggi neri nel teatro elisabettiano e dell' Età di Giacomo I (vedi Teatro elisabettiano), e in modo eccellente in Othello (1604).[10] Tuttavia, Othello e altre opere teatrali di questa epoca did not involve the emulation and caricature of "such supposed innate qualities of Blackness as inherent musicality, natural athleticism," etc. that Strausbaugh sees as crucial to blackface.[9] Lewis Hallam, Jr., a white actor using Blackface makeup of American Company fame, brought Blackface in this more specific sense to prominence as a theatrical device in the United States when playing the role of "Mungo", an inebriated black man in The Padlock, a British play that premiered in New York City at the John Street Theatre on May 29, 1769.[11] The play attracted notice, and other performers adopted the style. From at least the 1810s, Blackface clowns were popular in the United States.[12] George Washington Dixon was already building his stage career around Blackface in 1828,[13] but it was another white comic actor, Thomas D. Rice, who truly popularized blackface. Rice introduced the song "Jump Jim Crow" accompanied by a dance in his stage act in 1828[14] and scored stardom with it by 1832.[15]

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Questa cartolina, pubblicata intorno al 1908, mostra un duo minstrel di bianchi. Entrambi portano la parrucca e quello a sinistra è in Blackface.

Rice girò gli Stati Uniti recitando con il nome d'arte di "Daddy Jim Crow". Il nome Jim Crow later became attached to statutes that codified the reinstitution of segregation e discrimination dopo Reconstruction.[16]

Negli Anni '30 e nei primi Anni '40 dell'800, la recitazione Blackface mescolava la parodia con canzoni comiche e danze agitate. Inizialmente, Rice e i suoi colleghi si esibirono solo in locali abbastanza malfamati, ma quando il Blackface divenne popoplare, ottennero di esibirsi negli entr'acte di spettacoli teatrali frequentati dall'alta società. Vennero sviluppati dei personaggi Blackface stereotipati: il buffone, il pigro, il superstizioso, il codardo, il lascivo, personaggi che rubavano, mentivano patologicamente e parlavano storpiando l'Inglese. I primi intrattenitori Blackface erano tutti maschi, so cross-dressing white men also played black women who were often portrayed either as unappealingly and grotesquely mannish; in the matronly, mammy mold; or highly sexually provocative. The 1830s American stage, where Blackface first rose to prominence featured similarly comic stereotypes of the clever Yankee and the larger-than-life Frontiersman;[17] the late 19th- and early 20th-century American and British stage where it last prospered[18] featured many other, mostly ethnically-based, comic stereotypes: conniving, venal Jews;[19][20] drunken brawling Irishmen with blarney at the ready;[21][22][20] oily Italians;[20] stodgy Germans;[20] and gullible rural rubes.[20]

1830s and early 1840s Blackface performers performed solo or as duos, with the occasional trio; the traveling troupes that would later characterize Blackface minstrelsy arise only with the minstrel show.[23] In New York City in 1843, Dan Emmett and his Virginia Minstrels broke Blackface minstrelsy loose from its novelty act and entr'acte status and performed the first full-blown minstrel show: an evening's entertainment composed entirely of Blackface performance. (E. P. Christy did more or less the same, apparently independently, earlier the same year in Buffalo, New York.)[24] Their loosely structured show with the musicians sitting in a semicircle, a tambourine player on one end and a bones player on the other, set the precedent for what would soon become the first act of a standard three-act minstrel show.[25] By 1852, the skits that had been part of Blackface performance for decades expanded to one-act farces, often used as the show's third act.[26]

The songs of northern compositore Stephen Foster figured prominently in Blackface minstrel shows of the period. Though written in dialect and certainly politically incorrect by today's standards, his later songs were free of the ridicule and blatantly racist caricatures that typified other songs of the genre. Foster's works treated slaves and the South in general with an often cloying sentimentality that appealed to audiences of the day.[27]

White minstrel shows featured white performers pretending to be blacks, playing their versions of black music and speaking ersatz black dialects. Minstrel shows dominated popular show business in the U.S. from that time through into the 1890s, also enjoying massive popularity in the UK and in other parts of Europe.[28] As the minstrel show went into decline, Blackface returned to its novelty act roots and became part of vaudeville.[18] Blackface featured prominently in film at least into the 1930s, and the "aural blackface"[29] of the Amos 'n' Andy radio show lasted into the 1950s.[29] Meanwhile, amateur Blackface minstrel shows continued to be common at least into the 1950s.[30]

As a result, the genre played an important role in shaping perceptions of and prejudices about blacks generally and African Americans in particular. Some social commentators have stated that Blackface provided an outlet for whites' fear of the unknown and the unfamiliar, and a socially acceptable way of expressing their feelings and fears about race and control. Writes Eric Lott in Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class, "The black mask offered a way to play with the collective fears of a degraded and threatening—and male—Other while at the same time maintaining some symbolic control over them."[31]

American humorist and author Mark Twain reminisced near the end of his life about the shows he had seen in his youth:

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Film

Through the 1930s, many well-known entertainers of stage and screen also performed in blackface.[32] Whites who performed in Blackface in film included Al Jolson,[33] Eddie Cantor,[34] Bing Crosby[33] and Judy Garland.[34]

In the early years of film, black characters were routinely played by whites in blackface. In the first known film of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1903) all of the major black roles were whites in blackface.[35] Even the 1914 Uncle Tom starring African American actor Sam Lucas in the title role had a white male in Blackface as Topsy.[36] D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation (1915) used whites in Blackface to represent all of its major black characters,[37] but reaction against the film's racism largely put an end to this practice in dramatic film roles. Thereafter, whites in Blackface would appear almost exclusively in broad comedies or "ventriloquizing" blackness [38] in the context of a vaudeville or minstrel performance within a film.[39] This stands in contrast to made-up whites routinely playing Native Americans, Asians, Arabs, and so forth, for several more decades.[40]

Blackface makeup was largely eliminated even from live film comedy in the U.S. after the end of the 1930s, when public sensibilities regarding race began to change and Blackface became increasingly associated with racism and bigotry.[34] Still, the tradition did not end all at once. The radio program Amos 'n' Andy (1928–1960) constituted a type of "aural blackface", in that the black characters were portrayed by whites and conformed to stage Blackface stereotypes.[41] The conventions of Blackface also lived on unmodified at least into the 1950s in animated theatrical cartoons. Strausbaugh estimates that roughly one-third of late 1940s MGM cartoons "included a blackface, coon, or mammy figure."[42] Bugs Bunny appeared in Blackface at least as late as Southern Fried Rabbit in 1953.[43]

Bootlips

File:Bert Williams Blackface 2.jpg
Bert Williams era l'unico membro nero degli Ziegfeld Follies quando iniziò a parteciparvi, nel 1910. Qui in blackface, Williams era l'uomo di spettacolo afroamericano meglio pagato della propria epoca.[44]

Intorno al 1840, anche attori afroamericani si esibivano in Blackface. Frederick Douglass wrote in 1849 about one such troupe, Gavitt's Original Ethiopian Serenaders: "It is something to be gained when the colored man in any form can appear before a white audience."[45] Douglass generally abhorred Blackface and was one of the first people to write against the institution of Blackface minstrelsy, condemning it as racist in nature, with inauthentic, northern, white origins.[46]

When all-black minstrel shows began to proliferate in the 1860s, they often were billed as "authentic" and "the real thing". These "colored minstrels"[47] always claimed to be recently-freed slaves (doubtlessly many were, but most were not)[48] and were widely seen as authentic. This presumption of authenticity could be a bit of a trap, with white audiences seeing them more like "animals in a zoo"[49] than skilled performers. Despite often smaller budgets and smaller venues, their public appeal sometimes rivalled that of white minstrel troupes. In March 1866, Booker and Clayton's Georgia Minstrels may have been the country's most popular troupe, and were certainly among the most critically acclaimed.[50]

These "colored" troupes—many using the name "Georgia Minstrels"[51]—focused on "plantation" material, rather than the more explicit social commentary (and more nastily racist stereotyping) found in portrayals of northern blacks.[52] In the execution of authentic black music and the percussive, polyrhythmic tradition of pattin' Juba, when the only instruments performers used were their hands and feet, clapping and slapping their bodies and shuffling and stomping their feet, black troupes particularly excelled. One of the most successful black minstrel companies was Sam Hague's Slave Troupe of Georgia Minstrels, managed by Charles Hicks. This company eventually was taken over by Charles Callendar. The Georgia Minstrels toured the United States and abroad and later became Haverly's Colored Minstrels.[50]

From the mid-1870s, as white Blackface minstrelsy became increasingly lavish and moved away from "Negro subjects", black troupes took the opposite tack.[53] The popularity of the Fisk Jubilee Singers and other jubilee singers had demonstrated northern white interest in white religious music as sung by blacks, especially spirituals. Some jubilee troupes pitched themselves as quasi-minstrels and even incorporated minstrel songs; meanwhile, Blackface troupes began to adopt first jubilee material and then a broader range of southern black religious material. Within a few years, the word "jubilee", originally used by the Fisk Jubilee Singers to set themselves apart from Blackface minstrels and to emphasize the religious character of their music, became little more than a synonym for "plantation" material.[54] Where the jubilee singers tried to "clean up" Southern black religion for white consumption, Blackface performers exaggerated its more exotic aspects.[55]

African-American Blackface productions also contained buffoonery and comedy, by way of self-parody. In the early days of African-American involvement in theatrical performance, blacks could not perform without Blackface makeup, regardless of how dark-skinned they were. The 1860s "colored" troupes violated this convention for a time: the comedy-oriented endmen "corked up", but the other performers "astonished" commentators by the diversity of their hues.[56] Still, their performances were largely in accord with established Blackface stereotypes.[57]

These black performers became stars within the broad African-American community, but were largely ignored or condemned by the black bourgeoisie. James Monroe Trotter—a middle class African American who had contempt for their "disgusting caricaturing" but admired their "highly musical culture"—wrote in 1882 that "few… who condemned black minstrels for giving 'aid and comfort to the enemy'" had ever seen them perform.[58] Unlike white audiences, black audiences presumably always recognized Blackface performance as caricature, and took pleasure in seeing their own culture observed and reflected, much as they would half a century later in the performances of Moms Mabley.[59]

Despite reinforcing racist stereotypes, Blackface minstrelsy was a practical and often relatively lucrative livelihood when compared to the menial labor to which most blacks were relegated. Owing to the discrimination of the day, "corking (or "blacking") up" provided an often singular opportunity for African-American musicians, actors, and dancers to practice their crafts.[60] Some minstrel shows, particularly when performing outside the South, also managed subtly to poke fun at the racist attitudes and double standards of white society or champion the abolitionist cause. It was through Blackface performers, white and black, that the richness and exuberance of African-American music, humor, and dance first reached mainstream, white audiences in the U.S. and abroad.[5] It was through Blackface minstrelsy that African American performers first entered the mainstream of American show business.[61] Black performers used Blackface performance to satirize white behavior. It was also a forum for the sexual double-entendre gags that were frowned upon by white moralists. There was often a subtle message behind the outrageous vaudeville routines: Template:Quotation

With the rise of vaudeville, Antiguan-born actor and comedian Bert Williams became Florenz Ziegfeld's highest-paid star and only African American star.[44][62]

In the Theater Owners Booking Association (TOBA), an all-black vaudeville circuit organized in 1909, Blackface acts were a popular staple. Called "Toby" for short, performers also nicknamed it "Tough on Black Actors" (or, variously, "Artists" or "Asses"), because earnings were so meager. Still, TOBA headliners like Tim Moore and Johnny Hudgins could make a very good living, and even for lesser players, TOBA provided fairly steady, more desirable work than generally was available elsewhere. Blackface served as a springboard for hundreds of artists and entertainers—black and white—many of whom later would go on to find work in other performance traditions. For example, one of the most famous stars of Haverly's European Minstrels was Sam Lucas, who became known as the "Grand Old Man of the Negro Stage".[63] Lucas later played the title role in the 1914 cinematic production of Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin.[64] From the early 1930s to the late 1940s, New York City's famous Apollo Theater in Harlem featured skits in which almost all black male performers wore the Blackface makeup and huge white painted lips, despite protests that it was degrading from the NAACP. The comics said they felt "naked" without it.[65]

The minstrel show was appropriated by the black performer from the original white shows, but only in its general form. Blacks took over the form and made it their own. The professionalism of performance came from black theater. The black minstrels gave the shows vitality and humor that the white shows never had. As the black social critic, LeRoi Jones has written:

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The black minstrel performer was not only poking fun at himself but in a more profound way, he was poking fun at the white man. The cakewalk is caricaturing white customs, while white theater companies attempted to satirize the cakewalk as a black dance. Again, as LeRoi Jones notes: Template:Quotation

Autenticità o contraffazione

The degree to which Blackface performance drew on authentic African American culture and traditions is controversial. Blacks, including slaves, were influenced by white culture, including white musical culture. Certainly this was the case with church music from very early times. Complicating matters further, once the Blackface era began, some Blackface minstrel songs unquestionably written by New-York-based professionals (Stephen Foster, for example) made their way to the plantations in the South and merged into the body of African American folk music.[66]

However, it seems clear that American music by the early 19th century was an interwoven mixture of many influences, and that blacks were quite aware of white musical traditions and incorporated these into their music. Template:Quotation

Early Blackface minstrels often said that their material was largely or entirely authentic to African-American culture; John Strausbaugh, author of Black Like You, said that such claims were likely to be untrue. Well into the 20th century, scholars took the stories at face value.[67] Constance Rourke, one of the founders of what is now known as cultural studies, largely assumed this as late as 1931.[68] In the Civil Rights era there was a strong reaction against this view, to the point of denying that Blackface was anything other than a white racist counterfeit.[69] Starting no later than Robert Toll's Blacking Up (1974), a "third wave" has systematically studied the origins of blackface, and has put forward a nuanced picture: that Blackface did, indeed, draw on African American culture, but that it transformed, stereotyped, and caricatured that culture, resulting in often racist representations of black characters.[70]

As discussed above, this picture becomes even more complicated after the Civil War, when many African Americans became Blackface performers. They drew on much material of undoubted slave origins, but they also drew on a professional performer's instincts, while working within an established genre, and with the same motivation as white performers to make exaggerated claims of the authenticity of their own material.

Author Strausbaugh summed up as follows: "Some minstrel songs started as Negro folk songs, were adapted by White minstrels, became widely popular, and were readopted by Blacks," writes Strausbaugh. "The question of whether minstrelsy was white or black music was moot. It was a mix, a mutt -- that is, it was American music."[71]

Iconografia "Darky"

 
Florence Kate Upton's "Golliwogg" in 1895, described as "a horrid sight, the blackest gnome." Note the formal minstrel attire of the person sitting in the chair.

The darky icon itself—googly-eyed, with inky skin; exaggerated white, pink or red lips; and bright, white teeth—became a common motif in entertainment, children's literature, mechanical banks and other toys and games of all sorts, cartoons and comic strips, advertisements, jewelry, textiles, postcards, sheet music, food branding and packaging, and other consumer goods.

In 1895, the Golliwogg surfaced in Great Britain, the product of American-born children's book illustrator Florence Kate Upton, who modeled her rag doll character Golliwogg after a minstrel doll she had in the U.S. as a child. "Golly", as he later affectionately came to be called, had a jet-black face; wild, woolly hair; bright, red lips; and sported formal minstrel attire. The generic British golliwog later made its way back across the Atlantic as dolls, toy tea sets, ladies' perfume, and in myriad other forms. This word golliwog may have given rise to the ethnic slur wog.[72]

 
"Darky" iconography frequently adorned the covers of sheet music from the 1870s through the 1940s, but virtually disappeared by the 1950s.

U.S. cartoons from the 1930s and 1940s often featured characters in Blackface gags as well as other racial and ethnic caricatures. Blackface was one of the influences in the development of characters such as Mickey Mouse.[73] The United Artists 1933 release "Mickey's Mellerdrammer"—the name a corruption of "melodrama" thought to harken back to the earliest minstrel shows—was a film short based on a production of Uncle Tom's Cabin by the Disney characters. Mickey, of course, was already black, but the advertising poster for the film shows Mickey with exaggerated, orange lips; bushy, white sidewhiskers; and his now trademark white gloves.[74]

In the U.S., by the 1950s, the NAACP had begun calling attention to such portrayals of African Americans and mounted a campaign to put an end to Blackface performances and depictions. For decades, darky images had been seen in the branding of everyday products and commodities such as Picaninny Freeze, the Coon Chicken Inn[75] restaurant chain and Darkie toothpaste (renamed Darlie) and Blackman mops in Thailand. With the eventual successes of the modern day Civil Rights Movement, such blatantly racist branding practices ended in the U.S., and Blackface became an American taboo.

Manifestazioni moderne

Over time, Blackface and darky iconography became artistic and stylistic devices associated with art deco and the Jazz Age. By the 1950s and '60s, particularly in Europe, where it was more widely tolerated, Blackface became a kind of outré, camp convention in some artistic circles. The Black and White Minstrel Show was a popular British musical variety show that featured Blackface performers, and remained on British television until 1978.[76] Actors and dancers in Blackface appeared in music videos such Grace Jones's "Slave to the Rhythm" (1980, also part of her touring piece A One Man Show)[77] and Taco's "Puttin' on the Ritz" (1984).[senza fonte]

Darky iconography, while generally considered taboo in the U.S., still persists around the world.[senza fonte] When trade and tourism produce a confluence of cultures, bringing differing sensibilities regarding Blackface into contact with one another, the results can be jarring. Darky iconography is still popular in Japan today, but when Japanese toymaker Sanrio Corporation exported a darky-icon character doll (the doll, Bibinba, had fat, pink lips and rings in its ears)[78] in the 1990s, the ensuing controversy prompted Sanrio to halt production.[79] Foreigners visiting the Netherlands in November and December are often shocked at the sight of whites in classic Blackface as a character known as Zwarte Piet, whom many Dutch nationals love as a holiday symbol. Travelers to Spain have expressed dismay at seeing "Conguito",[80] a tubby, little brown character with full, red lips, as the trademark for Conguitos, a confection manufactured by the LACASA Group. In Britain, "Golly",[81] a golliwog character, fell out of favor in 2001 after almost a century as the trademark of jam producer James Robertson & Sons; but the debate still continues whether the golliwog should be banished in all forms from further commercial production and display, or preserved as a treasured childhood icon. Today golliwog dolls are reappearing in toy shops throughout Britain.[senza fonte]. In France, the chocolate powder Banania[82] still uses a little black boy with large red lips as its emblem.

File:Fazer lakupekka lakritsipatukka.png
Example of Finnish licorice with darky imagery, which was changed as late as 2007.

The influence of Blackface on branding and advertising, as well as on perceptions and portrayals of blacks, generally, can be found worldwide. Black and brown products, particularly, such as licorice and chocolate, remain commodities most frequently paired with darky iconography.[senza fonte]

Gli Zwarte Piet olandesi e fiamminghi

  Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Zwarte Piet.
 
A white Dutch woman in Zwarte Piet costume.

Nel folklore olandese and fiammingo Zwarte Piet — "Pierino il Nero" — è il domestico di Sinterklaas] Santa Klaus. The addition of Zwarte Piet to the Saint Nicholas (Sinterklaas) celebration is thought to have originated from a custom on the Dutch islands in the Waddenzee. Once a year young men would cover their faces in ashes and terrorize the streets. This blackening of the face was thought to make the men look like the devil, whom they expected to have a black face. In the past, Zwarte Piet was more identified with the chastising of bad children than the rewarding of the good, but both characters have softened since the mid-19th century, and today the 5 December feast of Saint Nicholas is mainly an occasion for giving gifts to children.[83] Zwarte Piet inherited many of the classic darky icons, contemporaneous with the spread of darky iconography.[84] To this day, holiday revellers in the Netherlands blacken their faces, wear afro wigs and bright red lipstick, and walk the streets throwing candy to passers-by.

Accepted without question in the past within a ethnically homogeneous nation, today there is some controversy regarding Zwarte Piet. Most people continue to enjoy this as a cherished tradition and look forward to his annual appearance, whilst others, especially overseas visitors, see him as a racist caricature[85] and fear it shapes Dutch children's perceptions of black people.[85][86] As a result of the allegations of racism, some of the Dutch have tried replacing Zwarte Piet's Blackface makeup with face paint in alternative colors such as green or purple. This practice, however, was widely ridiculed and has since disappeared.[87]

"Coons" di Città del Capo

Inspired by Blackface minstrels who visited Città del Capo, Sud Africa, nel 1848, former Javanese and Malaysian slaves took up the minstrel tradition, holding emancipation celebrations which consisted of music, dancing and parades. In the African-American cakewalk tradition, their songs often parodied their former masters and the privileged, white class. Such celebrations eventually became consolidated into an annual, year-end event known as the Cape Coon Carnival.[senza fonte]

Today, carnival minstrels are mostly Coloured ("mixed race"), Afrikaans-speaking revellers. Often in a pared-down style of Blackface which exaggerates only the lips, they parade down the streets of the city in colorful costumes, in a celebration of Creole culture. Participants also pay homage to the carnival's African-American roots, playing Negro spirituals and jazz featuring traditional Dixieland jazz instruments, including horns, banjos, and tambourines.[88]

Over time, carnival participants have appropriated the term coon and do not regard it as a pejorative. However, city officials changed the name of the celebration to the Cape Town Minstrel Carnival in 2003, so as to avoid offending tourists. Former South African president Nelson Mandela endorsed the carnival in 1986, and is a member of the Cape Town Minstrel Carnival Association, which presides over the event. Now officially more than a hundred years old, the carnival has become a major tourist attraction, vigorously promoted by the nation's tourism authority, complete with corporate sponsorship[senza fonte]. In any case, the South African term Kaapse Klopse, meaning "Cape Town Carnival Troupes Festival", is not controversial in any means whatsoever.

Gli Stati Uniti

Il "darky", o il "coon", archetipo del Blackface, rimane un persistente filo conduttore nella cultura americana. I cartoni animati che utilizzavano un'iconografia "darky" venivano trasmessi regolarmente dalle televisioni degli Stati Uniti fino alla metà degli Anni '90, e possono tuttora essere visti su alcuni network come TCM.

In 1936 when the lead in touring company of Orson Welles' Voodoo Macbeth (Maurice Evans) fell ill, Welles stepped temporary into the part and played the role in blackface.[89]

Un esempio della passione nella cultura americana per le performance ai limiti del razzismo è dimostrata dal popolare duo Amos 'n' Andy, personaggi interpretati da due bianchi che si esibiscono in Blackface. They gradually stripped off the Blackface makeup during live 1929 performances while continuing to talk in dialect. This fascination with color boundaries had been well-established since the beginning of the century, as it also had been before the Civil War.[90]

A New Orleans, nei primi anni del '900, un gruppo di operai afroamericani fondò un club che sfilava nell'annuale parata del Martedì grasso, vestendosi da hobo e facendosi chiamare "The Tramps". In cerca di un'apparenza più colorita, si ribattezzarono in seguito "Zulus" copiando i loro costumi da una parodia Blackface recitata in un jazz club and cabaret di neri del luogo.[91] Il risultato è uno dei più conosciuti e straordinari krewes del Martedì Grasso, il Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club. Vestiti con gonne d'erba, cappelli a cilindro e con un esagerato trucco Blackface, gli Zulus di New Orleans sono tanto famosi quanto controversi.[92]

L'abbigliamento Blackface era una volta parte tradizionale della annuale Mummers Parade di Philadelphia. Growing dissent from civil rights groups and the offense of the black community led to a 1964 official city policy ruling out blackface.[93]

Nel 1959, il giornalista bianco John Howard Griffin utilizzò medicinali e trattamenti con lampade abbronzanti per scurirsi la pelle allo scopo di investigare il modo in cui gli afroamericani vivevano nel profondo Sud. Ne uscì un bestseller, Black Like Me (1961), che ebbe una certa influenza nell'aiutare i bianchi americani a capire la realtà del Jim Crowismo nel Sud durante l'inizio dell'era dei diritti civili.

L'ex congressman dell'Illinois and House Pertito repubblicano leader della minoranza Bob Michel provocò un po' di subbuglio nel 1988, quando nello spettacolo USA Today television program ricordò teneramente i minstrel shows a cui aveva partecipato da giovane, manifestando il suo rincrescimento perché fossero passati di moda.[94][95]

Nel 1993, l'attore bianco Ted Danson scatenò una tempesta di controversie quando comparve in una Friars Club roast in Blackface, delivering uno scabroso shtick scritto dall'allora sua compagna, l'attrice afroamericana Whoopi Goldberg. Recentemente, l'attore gay Chuck Knipp ha usato il Blackface per una pesante caricatura razziale ritraendo un personaggio chiamato "Shirley Q. Liquor" in un suo spettacolo di cabaret, abitualmente recitato per una platea di soli bianchi. Knipp's outrageously stereotypical character has drawn criticism and prompted demonstrations from black, gay and transgender activists.[96]

Blackface e Minstrel show fanno anche da tema per il film di Spike Lee Bamboozled (2000). Racconta di un dirigente televisivo nero insoddisfatto che reintroduce il vecchio stile Blackface ed è disgustato dal successo che questo ottiene.[97]

In anni recenti, sono accaduti vari "incidents" Blackface incendiari, in cui studenti di college bianchi hanno indossato abiti Blackface in probabilmente innocenti ma inopportune gags, oppure all'interno di un riconosciuto clima di razzismo e intolleranza nei campus. Questi incidenti accadono d'abitudine nel periodo di Halloween, in cui gli studenti spesso recuperano gli stereotipi razzisti.[98][99][100][101][102]

Nel novembre del 2005, esplose una polemica quando il giornalista afroamericano Steve Gilliard inviò una fotografia al suo blog. L'immagine era quella del Governatore repubblicano del Maryland Michael S. Steele, allora candidato al Senato degli Stati Uniti. Era stata ritoccata con folte sopracciglia bianche e grandi labbra rosse. La didascalia diceva: "I's simple Sambo and I's running for the big house." Gilliard difese l'immagine, commentando che il conservatore Steele aveva "rifiutato di prendere le parti del proprio popolo."[103]

Il film del 2008 Tropic Thunder è un notevole esempio di Blackface: non solo un attore bianco ritraeva un personaggio nero stereotipato per praticamente l'intera durata del film, ma l'attore in questione, Robert Downey, Jr., fu nominato all' Oscar per la propria parte.

Further, commodities bearing iconic darky images, from tableware, soap and toy marbles to home accessories and T-shirts, continue to be manufactured and marketed in the U.S. and elsewhere. Some are reproductions of historical artifacts, while others are so-called "fantasy" items, newly designed and manufactured for the marketplace. There is a thriving niche market for such item in the U.S., particularly, as well as for original artifacts of darky iconography. The value of vintage "negrobilia" pieces has risen steadily since the 1970s.[104]

Altri contesti

 
A Hajji Firuz performer in a street of Tehran

In Nowruz celebrations in Iran, Hajji Firuz performers blacken their faces, and each "wears very colorful clothes, usually — but not always — red, and always a hat that is sometimes long and cone-shaped. His songs, quite traditional in wording and melody, are very short repetitive". [105]

There are Blackface performance traditions the origins of which stem not from representation of racial stereotype and are not in the stereotypical Blackface mode. In Europe there are a number of folk dances or folk performances in which the black face appears to represent the night, or the coming of the longer nights associated with winter. Many fall or autumn North European folk black face customs are employed ritualistically to appease the forces of the oncoming winter, utilizing characters with blackened faces, or black masks.[106]

In Bacup, Lancashire, England, the Britannia Coco-nut Dancers wear black faces. Some believe the origin of this dance can be traced back to the influx of Cornish miners to northern England, and the black face relates to the dirty blackened faces associated with mining.

In the 1976 Soviet film How Tsar Peter the Great Married Off His Moor (Сказ про то, как царь Пётр арапа женил), the iconic singer Vladimir Vysotsky performs the role of the Moor in blackface.

L'eredità

Contrariamente alla propria interpretazione razzista, il Blackface fu il condotto attraverso cui la musica, la commedia e la danza afroamericane e di influenza afroamericana raggiunsero il grande circuito commerciale degli Stati Uniti.[5] Il Blackface giocò un ruolo determinante per la presentazione della cultura afroamericana al pubblico mondiale. Lo storico del jazz Gary Giddings scrisse in Bing Crosby: A Pocketful of Dreams, The Early Years 1903-1940:

Template:Quotation

In a specific example of this, from Ted Fox's Showtime at the Apollo Template:Quotation

Molte delle prime star del paese, come Jimmie Rodgers e Bob Wills, erano veterani degli spettacoli Blackface.[107][108][109] More recently, the American country music television show Hee Haw (1969–1993) had the format and much of the content of a minstrel show.[110]

The immense popularity and profitability of Blackface were testaments to the power, appeal, and commercial viability of not only black music and dance, but also of black style. This led to cross-cultural collaborations, as Giddings writes; but, particularly in times past, to the often ruthless exploitation and outright theft of African-American artistic genius, as well—by other, white performers and composers; agents; promoters; publishers; and record company executives.[111][112][113][114][115]

While Blackface in the literal sense has played only a minor role in entertainment in recent decades, various writers see it as epitomizing an appropriation and imitation of black culture that continues today. As noted above, Strausbaugh sees Blackface as central to a longer tradition of "displaying Blackness".[9] "To this day," he writes, "Whites admire, envy and seek to emulate such supposed innate qualities of Blackness as inherent musicality, natural athleticism, the composure known as 'cool' and superior sexual endowment," a phenomemon he views as part of the history of blackface.[9] For more than a century, when white performers have wanted to appear sexy, (like Elvis[116][117] or Mick Jagger[118]); or streetwise, (like Eminem);[119][118] or hip, (like Mezz Mezzrow);[120] they often have turned to African-American performance styles, stage presence and personas.[121] Pop culture referencing and cultural appropriation of African-American performance and stylistic traditions—often resulting in tremendous profit—is a tradition with origins in Blackface minstrelsy.[111]

The international imprint of African-American culture is pronounced in its depth and breadth, in indigenous expressions, as well as in myriad, blatantly mimetic and subtler, more attenuated forms.[122] This "browning", à la Richard Rodriguez, of American and world popular culture began with Blackface minstrelsy.[111] It is a continuum of pervasive African-American influence which has many prominent manifestations today, among them the ubiquity of the cool aesthetic[123][124] and hip hop culture.[125]

Pittura facciale e imitazione etnica

Other types of performances involving ethnic impersonation are yellowface, in which performers adopt Asian identities; brownface, for East Indian or non-white Latino; and redface, for Native Americans. Whiteface, or paleface, is sometimes used to describe non-white actors performing white parts (for example, in the film White Chicks), although it more commonly describes the clown or mime traditions of white makeup.[senza fonte]. Actors such as Dooley Wilson, famous for the role of Sam the piano player in Casablanca, earned his stage name "Dooley" from performing in whiteface as an Irishman.[126]

In West African folk theatre and puppetry there is a tradition of satirical representation of white Europeans. Performers will wear white masks and white gloves. In the Yoruba Egungun festivals overly affectionate white couples are made fun of due to their unseemly and ridiculous behaviour.[127] The imagery is very similar to the representation of white colonists, sometimes with a humorous undercurrent, in wood carvings from the same regions.[128]

In Thailand, actors darken their faces to portray the Negrito of Thailand in a popular play by King Chulalongkorn (1868–1910), Ngo Pa (Template:Lang-th), which has been turned into a musical and a movie.[129]

Vedere anche

Note

  1. ^ Riguardo a citazioni sul "darky"/"coon" vedi, per esempio, la nota 34 a pag. 167 dell'edizione annotata di Edward Marx e Laura E. Franey di: Yone Noguchi, The American Diary of a Japanese Girl, Temple University Press, 2007, ISBN 1592135552. Vedi anche: Lewis A. Erenberg (1984), Steppin' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226215156, pag. 73. Per altre indicazioni sullo stereotipo "darky", vedi: J. Ronald Green (2000), Straight Lick: The Cinema of Oscar Micheaux, Indiana University Press, ISBN 0253337534, pag. 134, 206; pag. 151 della stessa opera allude allo specifico archetipo "coon".
  2. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 62
  3. ^ Are You Being Served?: episodio 8, Roots?, 24 dicembre 1981.
  4. ^ a b c Lott,  p. 17–18
  5. ^ a b c d e Watkins,  p. 82
  6. ^ Inside the minstrel mask: Readings in nineteenth-century Blackface minstrelsy by Bean, Annemarie, James V. Hatch, and Brooks McNamara. 1996. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
  7. ^ Color-Blind Ideology and the Cultural Appropriation of Hip-Hop Jason Rodriquez, Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, Vol. 35, No. 6, 645-668 (2006)
  8. ^ Darktown Strutters. - book reviews African American Review, Spring, 1997 by Eric Lott
  9. ^ a b c d Strausbaugh,  p. 35-36
  10. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 62
  11. ^ Nick Tosches, Where Dead Voices Gather, Back Bay, 2002, p. 10, ISBN 0316895377.
  12. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 68
  13. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 74 et. seq.
  14. ^ Lott,  p. 211
  15. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 67
  16. ^ Ronald L. F. Davis, Creating Jim Crow, The History of Jim Crow online, New York Life. Accessed 31 January 2008.
  17. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 27
  18. ^ a b Strausbaugh,  p. 130–131
  19. ^ Jody Rosen (2006), album notes to Jewface, Reboot Stereophonic CD RSR006
  20. ^ a b c d e Strausbaugh,  p. 131
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  23. ^ Toll,  p. 30
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  25. ^ Toll,  p. 51–52
  26. ^ Toll,  p. 56–57
  27. ^ Key, Susan. "Sound and Sentimentality: Nostalgia in the Songs of Stephen Foster." American Music, Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer, 1995), pp. 145-166.
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  32. ^ One extensive list can be found at Strausbaugh,  p. 222-225.
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  36. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 204–206
  37. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 211–212
  38. ^ Michael Rogin, Blackface, White Noise:Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot (1998), University of California Press, ISBN 0520213807, pag. 79.
  39. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 214
  40. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 214–215
  41. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 225; the televised version (1951–1953) used African American actors.
  42. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 240
  43. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 241
  44. ^ a b Strausbaugh,  p. 136
  45. ^ Frederick Douglass, Gavitt's Original Ethiopian Serenaders, originally published in The North Star (Rochester), 29 June 1849. Online in Stephen Railton, Uncle Tom's Cabin and American Culture, University of Virginia. Accessed online 31 January 2008.
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  48. ^ Toll,  p. 198, 236–237
  49. ^ Toll,  p. 206
  50. ^ a b Toll,  p. 205
  51. ^ Toll,  p. 203
  52. ^ Toll,  p. 179, 198
  53. ^ Toll,  p. 234
  54. ^ Toll,  p. 236–237, 244
  55. ^ Toll,  p. 243
  56. ^ Toll,  p. 200
  57. ^ Toll,  p. 180
  58. ^ Toll,  p. 226–228, including the quotation from Trotter.
  59. ^ Toll,  p. 258–259
  60. ^ Toll,  p. 195
  61. ^ Toll,  p. 228
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  67. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 69
  68. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 27–28
  69. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 70
  70. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 70; Toll passim.
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  118. ^ a b Strausbaugh,  p. 218 explicitly analogizes Al Jolson's style of Blackface to Jagger and Eminem: "not mockery, but the sincere mimicry of a non-Black artist who loves Black culture (or what he thinks is Black culture) so dearly he can't resist imitating it, even to the ridiculous point of blacking up."
  119. ^ Cunningham, Daniel Mudie. "Larry Clark: Trashing the White American Dream." The Film Journal. Retrieved on 2006-08-25
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  121. ^ Strausbaugh,  p. 40: "To this day, Whites admire, envy and seek to emulate such supposed innate qualities of Blackness as inherent musicality, natural athleticism, the composure known at 'cool' and superior sexual endowment." Conversely, up to and including the Civil Rights era, "aspirational" black performers imitated white style: Strausbaugh,  p. 140
  122. ^ Joel Hoard, "Fa shizzle dizzle, it's cultural appropriation-izzle", The Michigan Daily, April 19, 2004. Retrieved on 12-18-2008.
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  124. ^ Robert Farris Thompson, "An Aesthetic of the Cool", African Arts, Vol. 7, No. 1 (Autumn, 1973), pag. 40-43, 64-67, 89-91. Citation for African (more specifically, Yoruba) origin of "cool".
  125. ^ MacBroom, Patricia. "Rap Locally, Rhyme Globally: Hip-Hop Culture Becomes a World-Wide Language for Youth Resistance, According to Course." News, Berkeleyan. 2000-05-02. Retrieved on 2006-09-27.
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  127. ^ Icons; Ideals and Power in the Art of Africa; Herbert M. Cole; National Museum of African Art; Washington DC and London; ISBN 0-87474-320-6; pp25-27
  128. ^ Art and Religion in Africa; Rosalind I.J. Hackett; Cassell 1996: ISBN 0-304-70424-5 p.193 quoting Babatunde Lawal, 1993, "Oyibo: Representation of the Colonialist Other in Yoruba Art. Discussion Paper, Boston University.
  129. ^ Charles F. Keyes, The golden peninsula : culture and adaptation in mainland Southeast Asia. Includes bibliographical references and index., Honolulu, (SHAPS library of Asian studies) University of Hawai'i Press, 1995, p. 34, ISBN 082481696xISBN non valido (aiuto).

Riferimenti

Ulteriori letture

  • Cockrell, Dale, Demons of Disorder: Early Blackface Minstrels and their World, Cambridge Studies in American Theatre and Drama, 1997, ISBN 0-521-56828-5.
  • David Levinthal, Blackface, Arena, 1999, ISBN 1-892041-06-5.
  • W.T. Lhamon, Jr., Raising Cain: Blackface Performance from Jim Crow to Hip Hop, Harvard University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-674-74711-9.
  • Michael Rogin, Blackface, White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot, University of California Press, 1998, ISBN 0-520-21380-7.

Generali

Zwarte Piet

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