Songhai people

Songhai are from africa The Songhai are an ethnic group living in western Africa, akin to the Mandé and Tuareg. The Songhai language group, however, has been connected with the Nilo-Saharan language family. They were the dominant ethnic group in the Songhai Empire. Songhai

Songhai or Songhay , largest of the former empires in the western Sudan region of N Africa. The state was founded (c.700) by Berbers on the Middle Niger, in what is now central Mali. The rulers accepted Islam c.1000. Its power was much increased by Sonni Ali (1464–92), who occupied Timbuktu in 1468. Songhai reached its greatest extent under Askia Muhammad I (c.1493–1528). He was deposed by his son, and in the subsequent conflicts among his successors the empire slowly began to decline. The breakup of the state was accelerated by a Moroccan invasion in 1591.

Songhai (Songhay) Location: The Songhai originated in the Dendi region of northwestern Nigeria and ended up in Western Sudan, Africa, centered on the Big Bend of the Niger River. There are two capitals in Songhai. The first capital is Kukiya, which is located north of the Falls of Labezanga (the present frontier between the republics of Mali and Niger). The second capital, Gao, developed north of Kakiya at the terminus of the Saharan tracks. The Songhai reached their zenith in the 15th and 16th centuries. History: Under the name of Kawkaw (which could cover the name of both the ancient capital Kukiya and of the later one Gao), the kingdom of Songhai was mentioned together with Ghana by al-Khwarizmi in the first half of ninth century. Kawkaw was composed of two towns. On the eastern bank of the river (toward to the desert) was the town called Sarnah (now called Sane). There were markets and trading houses. There was another town on the west bank, ‘where [ the king ] and, his man and those who have his confidence live’ (quoted in Yaqut, Mujam, IV, 329). Sunni Ali, who incorporated the eastern part of Mali Empire (Neighbor Empire) into his empire, most aggressively advanced Songhai expansion. Muhammad, of the Askia dynasty, who further extended Songhai’s influence and made Timbuktu again a thriving cultural center, followed him. After his day, however, dynastic rivalry perilously weakened the empire, while revolts and raids from neighboring states further tested its endurance. After an assault in 1591 by Moroccan forces equipped with firearms, Songhai never recovered. Religion: Having come into contact with Muslims from the north, the Songhai accepted Islam, at least nominally, shortly after 1000. Food: Fishing was very important to their nutrition, and also the trading. The people of Songhai had worshipped a monstrous fish, and were subject to its stringent laws, until a stranger, who came from the Yemen, killed it. According to one version of the mythology, a blacksmith and a drummer aided him. He became King of the Songhai and was the founder of the earliest known dynasty, that of the Dya. The myth of the dragon-killer that became King is known from various parts of West Africa.

Songhai Encyclopedia Article Songhai, West African empire, centred on the largest bend of the Niger River, that reached its zenith in the 15th and 16th centuries.

The Songhai, a fishing and trading people who originated in the Dendi region of north-western Nigeria, gradually extended their domination upstream in the 8th century ad and by 800 xhad established themselves at Gao, which soon became a flourishing market town. Having come into contact with Muslims from the north, the Songhai accepted Islam, at least nominally, shortly after 1000. For some centuries they dominated their smaller neighbouring states while in turn being overshadowed by the powerful Mali Empire to the west.

In the late 13th century, power in Songhai was consolidated in the Sunni dynasty, which gradually gained independence from Mali and thereafter began to encroach upon the weakening Mali power. Songhai expansion was most aggressively advanced by Sunni Ali Kolon, who incorporated the eastern part of Mali into his empire, subjugating Djenné in 1471. He was followed by Muhammad I, of the Askia dynasty, who further extended Songhai's influence and restored Timbuktu as a thriving cultural centre and the most important empire in western Africa. After his reign, however, dynastic rivalry perilously weakened the empire, while revolts and raids from neighbouring states further tested its endurance. An assault by Moroccan forces equipped with firearms in 1591 was the final blow, from which the Songhai state never recovered

Unit Two: Studying Africa Through the Social Studies Module Ten: African Politics and Government Student's Edition Activity Two-Explore Types of Government In Pre-Colonial Africa

In Module Seven A: African History, you explored the histories of a wide diversity of pre-colonial African societies. Each of these societies had a system of government. That is, each society had a set of rules, laws, and traditions, sometimes called customs, that established how the people would live together peacefully as part of larger group. While there are many different types of government in pre-colonial Africa, most political systems fit into one of three political categories. Centralized Kingdoms and Empires As you will remember, some African societies were large empires governed by kings who had near absolute power. In Module Seven A, you studied the empires of ancient Egypt in North Africa, of Nubia and Axum in North East Africa, of Ghana, Mali and Songhai in West Africa, and Zimbabwe in Southern Africa. These are examples of large kingdoms or empires that developed a complex system of government. They were in many regards similar to kingdoms and empires in Asia and Europe that were in existence during the same time periods as the African kingdoms you studied. The political systems of African kingdoms shared similarities with European kingdoms. The king, such as Mansa Musa of Mali and Sonni Ali of Songhay, had near absolute power and there was no separation of power. The king and his councilors and advisors carried out executive, legislative, and judicial functions. Given that political control was concentrated or centralized in the hands of a few people, political scientists refer to these societies as centralized states. The king's power was often based on his ability to collect revenue and tribute, usually through the control of trade, and to control and use an army to defend his sovereignty. Moreover, there were no independent judicial systems. Officials appointed by the king were responsible for criminal justice. In short, the king was chief executive, chief law-maker, and chief judge. While there were many factors that explain the development of strong kingdoms in Africa, as you will remember from Module Seven A, historians have identified three important factors that were present in the rise of all kingdoms. 1. Expansion of agricultural production. 2. Development of new metal technology. 3. Expansion of trade. Do you remember why these factors were so important in the development of centralized kingdoms? Look back at Module Seven A: African History. Just as in Europe, Asia, and the Americas, large and powerful kingdoms in Africa did not last forever. At times, a powerful kingdom was conquered and overthrown by a new group of rulers who established a new kingdom, as was the case when the Kingdom of Mali replaced the Kingdom of Ghana. In other situations, a kingdom may have become less powerful due to a combination of factors such as poor leadership or the loss an important source of power. As you will remember, one of the reasons why the Kingdom of Songhai declined in strength had to do with the lessening of the importance of the trans-Saharan trade. Centralized Small Kingdoms and City-States As was true in Europe, Asia, and the Americas, not all African peoples lived in large kingdoms. There were a variety of social and political systems in Africa. In addition to the large kingdoms, there were smaller centralized political units, some of which historians call City States since they were made up of large urban-like areas. These geographically smaller states shared much in common with the larger African kingdoms. The primary difference was size. The system and practice of governance that centralized power in the hands of a king and a supporting caste of political advisors and elites in these smaller kingdoms was similar to that of larger kingdoms. Moreover, control of trade and a strong military were also important factors in the development and maintenance of these smaller states. Oyo, Ife, Illorin, and Ibaban are examples of West African city-states. Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa, and Lamu are examples of East African city-states. Module Nine: African Economies featured a case study of the Yoruba city-states (Oyo, Ife, Illorin, Ibaban). The focus in that lesson was on economic specialization through the cotton and textile industries. Economic specialization and political centralization assisted each other in the Yoruba city-states. Economic specialization increased wealth and revenues that were used to support ruling elites and standing armies. In turn, the kings and ruling elites, along with the military under their control, provided stability and protection necessary for economic growth and productivity.

Decentralized or Stateless Political Societies There were many African societies which have been classified by political historians as stateless or de-centralized. These terms are used to describe societies that did not have a well-defined and complex or centralized systems of government, such as political systems of Ghana, Oyo or Zimbabwe that you studied in Module Seven A Although they cannot be certain, historians of Africa believe that as many as a third of the people of Africa on the eve of colonial rule lived in stateless or decentralized societies. For many years these societies were not well studied by historians. There are a couple of reasons why the decentralized societies in Africa have not been well studied by historians. 1. One of the reasons why these societies were not studied has to do with the availability of historical data. Rulers in centralized states had an interest in keeping oral or written records. For example, Module Seven: African History and Module Eleven: African Literature mentioned the epic story of Sundiata, King of Mali. This wonderful story that is now available in translation and written form, was originally part of a oral history of Mali memorized and repeated by state appointed historians called Griots. In decentralized societies that had no king, chiefs, or ruling elite, there was little opportunity or incentive to keep oral or written histories. Consequently, contemporary historians do not have the same rich sources of oral tradition to draw on when studying the histories of stateless societies. 2. A second reason why decentralized societies have not been well studied has to do with prejudice. Until quite recently, many historians have accepted a view that only societies that are centralized are worth studying. Until the past twenty years, many historians of Africa looked at African history through the lens of European history. Consequently, to quote a leading historian of Africa, historians "took the existence of states as a mark of political achievement-the bigger the state, the bigger the achievement. [However] recent authorities suggest that this view is far from accurate ." These historians allowed their perspective of African societies to be prejudiced by use of European and North American history as a lens through which to study African history. As the brief case study on the Igbo speaking peoples will show, these historians were incorrect in their assessment. Decentralized and stateless societies can develop economically, culturally, and socially, even if they don't have a centralized system of government. Decentralized or stateless political societies in Africa were often made up of a group of neighboring towns or villages that had no political connection with a larger kingdom or nation. Most stateless and decentralized societies did not have a system of chiefs. However, some of these societies had chiefs.. In these societies the position of chief was weak and was often not hereditary. Do you remember what this term means? Chiefs were usually selected by a group of elders. In such a system, chiefs were selected not based on their family connections, but on their reputation as person who contributed to the welfare of the group. Some decentralized societies did not have chiefs. They were governed by a council of elders that was comprised of many of the elderly people in the community. You will remember from Module Eight: Culture and Society in Africa that age is greatly respected in Africa. In most decentralized societies in Africa, the elders held social, economic and political power. Elders were so important that some historians have defined decentralized societies as democracies of age. Can you think of reasons why these societies were defined as democracies of age? Case-Study of Igbo Society There is a set of stereotypes that many of us use when we think of stateless or decentralized societies. Stateless societies are thought to be small in terms of population and geographic area. They are often thought as being nomadic or semi-nomadic, or as being comprised of small bands of hunters and gatherers. Do you remember the discussion of the San and Mbundi peoples in Module Nine: African Economies? These hunter and gatherer societies were politically decentralized. But they are not representative of stateless societies in Africa. Most decentralized societies are agriculturally-based and are not nomadic. Moreover, many of these societies are as complex as their more centralized neighbors. Another, and perhaps more representative, example of decentralized society in Africa are the Igbo speaking peoples. The Igbo speaking people live in the south eastern part of contemporary Nigeria. The Igbo are neighbors of the highly politically centralized Yoruba, but their political system is much different. Instead of centralized kingdoms headed by powerful kings, chiefs, and their advisors, the Igbo had no centralized system of governance. Rather they lived in politically autonomous villages. That is, each village was politically separate and was not politically connected to neighboring villages. Within the villages there was not a system of hereditary chiefs. Village decisions were made by a headman and a council of elders that selected the headman. The absence of a centralized system of government did not mean that there was no system or institutions of governance among the Igbo speaking peoples. In addition to village based council of elders, there were religious organizations, structures of kinship ties-- lineage groups, and secret societies, that provided regulations which governed people's lives. These organizations guaranteed that no one group or institutions gained too much power--a system of checks and balances! The absence of centralized government did not hinder the economic, social and economic development of the Igbo peoples. Indeed, just as their Yoruba neighbors, the Igbo speaking peoples developed a specialized and diversified economy based on agriculture, textiles, and trade. Your Turn Your teacher will distribute three graphic organizers. These graphic organizers focus on governmental responsibility in each of the three types of governments this unit has addressed:

• • • Centralized kingdoms and empires
    • Centralized City-States
    • Decentralized/stateless societies

On each graphic organizer, you will provide information on which individual or group of individual controls the following functions of government:

• • • Administration (executive): the enforcement of rules, peace, and security; provision of services.
    • Legislation: law making
    • Judicial: justice and interpretation of laws
    • Trade: control of trade and revenues

World View Songhai People of West Africa A Cultural - Social - Religious Profile

The vast majority of the information in this worldview was as result of interviews compiled by Brad and Sally Womble, Wayne and Gayle Gullion with Songhai, March - June 2000. We have continued to update the material and correct it, as needed, as we observe and participate in their daily life. Paul Stoller's many works and impressions of the Songhai people give valuable, detailed insight into their religious practices. All comments or quotes written in boldface type have been taken specifically from the book In Sorcery's Shadow, by Paul Stoller and Cheryl Olkes, The University of Chicago Press, 1987. We do not claim to be professional ethnographers, nor anthropologists. This paper is simply a compilation of our observations, what we have read, and what we understand about the Songhai at this time, by the grace of God. We continue to learn much daily. Social Structure 2.1 How is the society of a community organized? What are the typical, common homogenous and heterogeneous facets of society?

Although there is an elected government in place, the power and organization of the community is based upon tribal traditions. However, continuing the French colonial organization, Niger is divided into several departments (states) and then each department into many small cantons (counties). Each canton elects its own chief. After his election, he, generally, will remain the chief for his lifetime. Upon his death, someone from his family will generally be elected the new chief. If more than one of his brothers or sons desire the position, an election is held in the canton to choose the new chief, who in turn will be chief until his death. Each village that is in the canton will also have its own chief who functions under the chief of the canton. Larger villages can be divided into areas (neighborhoods), with each area having its chief who functions under the chief of the village and chief of the canton. Most village chiefs have helpers who coordinate work such as cleaning the village streets, working in the fields and construction of community buildings. The next group, in order of authority, would be the elders of the village, followed by the fathers of each family. Many times a woman in the village will be given the responsibility of organizing large meals for community gatherings and for keeping the village clean. The religious leaders are responsible for prayers, religious celebrations and the Koranic schools. They are generally not heavily involved in the governing of the community unless the matter is religious, such as divorce. The men of the community work and communicate together as a group. It is said that when two men eat together, they will build trust and confidence in each other. The Songhai society is one in which the men control both the marriage and the market place. The women and young children form another group of the community. The women often are involved in group projects and village work. Both the older children and youth have their own groups. The women and men of the community mix only at marriages and baptisms. The women are allowed into village meetings and can ask questions of their leaders. Songhai communities would also have a sorcerer. It was stated that 99% of the people in the villages would consult the sorcerer for help, but most would not admit to the practice. One stated that God would provide after death, but that the sorcerer was there to help during one's life. Another stated that it was God who had given the power to all sorcerers, charms and other magic practiced, thus validating their use. In each community there are merchants who are described as "hard, unrelenting, and merciless in dealing with everyone, even members of their own family". They are said to have great economic power, yet lack respect from their fellow Songhai. Among the Songhai, special respect is reserved for the nobles, who are direct descendants of Asika, great king of the Songhai. The nobles are described as prideful and spiteful, envying the merchants' success, yet too prideful to participate in economic affairs. They retain belief in the old Songhai social order, based on slavery. In terms of ideal expectations, nobles are expected to be "laconic (expressing much with a few words), dignified, and generous." Commoners are supposed to be undignified, avaricious (insatiably greedy), and loquacious (talking excessively)." 2.2 How do different families relate to each other? How do families meet other families in the community? What are the rules of meeting and making friends? A new person who comes to the village should look for the chief and get his permission to move into the village. The Songhai would not give permission to a Fulani or Bella to live in their village, but they would be allowed to live outside the village if they worked with the animals of the Songhai. Most people are friendly and welcoming to a new person, but it does take time to make friends. In smaller villages, most of the people are related to one another in some way. In this type of village it may be harder for a newcomer to gain acceptance. One starts to make friends by greeting people in the street or finding the place in the village where people gather to talk. Men are friends with men, women with women. Children and women are not allowed to talk to men unless the man greets them. This is changing with the younger generation and in the larger cities where women are free to talk to men and may become friends. The father of the family may forbid his family members to have friends from families with bad reputations. Many of the men are friends from childhood. The women do not have much time to spend on friendships. They tend to be closer to the women who live in the next house or hut or even with the co-spouses of their husband. 2.3 How is one's place in a village society or a community determined? Is there a caste system or other type of structure within the culture? A person's place in the village or society is determined by his ancestors' former place. If a person has slaves as ancestors, he would be at the lower end of society. If one's ancestors were chiefs, or in other ways important in the village, one would also be important. Respect is given to age and wisdom. One may loose one's place in the village if one is unwise or makes trouble. Placement in Songhai society is also determined by the work that a person and his family do. The older Songhai would never do the work that they consider to be the work of a slave, unless there was not another choice. This would include selling water, cleaning clothes or working with metal. Such men also disdain the tasks of cooking and tending to their children. With the younger generation, such occupational taboos are becoming less important. 2.4 How does society relate to foreigners? Foreigners from another city, another race, another tribe, another country? What are the attitudes and rules of relating? The white man provokes a mixture of reactions. One person still feared the French because he felt that there was still a possibility that the French would take him or some of his family away from their home and not allow them to return. It seems that the people divide foreigners into two categories: French and other nationalities. The French for the most part are disliked and associated with the colonial era. Other foreigners are seen a source of aid. It is hard for the African to see a white person as a real friend and not a source for meeting every need. It is very important for the Songhai that one pay frequent visits to their home, especially during celebrations and times of tragedy. They also respect very much someone who will enter into their daily lives, learn their language and culture and display an attitude of acceptance. One should do much listening in the beginning of building relationships; this is considered the wise and respectful thing to do. One might participate in the community planting and harvesting work. Foreigners and strangers (other than a Songhai) who desire to live in the Songhai village are assigned to the 'zongo kwaara', a neighborhood set-aside for the newly arrived person. It was stated that the Songhai people hold Americans in high esteem. The responders felt that Americans, in general, do not feel that they are better than the African. It was also stated the Americans are fair and honest in their everyday dealings. As for other Africans, the Songhai people are normally open, curious and hospitable. Once an African from another county has the permission of the chief to stay, other community members seem to be helpful to the newcomer. It was repeated many times that the newcomer must prove himself before real friendship could develop. At the same time, the Songhai people do bear prejudices against other tribes and cultures, and in general, are a very proud people: The Housa are useful for meat butchering The Bella and Fulani are useful for slave labor— field help and shepherding The Toureg are despised for their pivotal role in the downfall of the Songhai Empire 2.5 How is real estate handled? What are the rules of ownership, selling and buying? Much of the land in Niger has been passed down from father to son for many generations. In Niamey and other larger cities, there is a formal process through the mayor's office for purchasing and selling land. When a family plot is being sold, all members of the family must be in agreement. Land can be purchased from an individual or from the government. In many of the smaller villages, land is purchased through the chief. In some cases there is proof of ownership through the local government offices, but much of the land is bought and sold by verbal agreement only. Land is usually passed down to the sons. Women do not usually own land, although there are some more modern women who have begun to purchase land. 2.6 How does an individual become an adult? Are there rules of recognition and rites of passage? At what age or ages do they occur? What are the circumstances of their occurrence? For the female, adulthood comes with the first menstrual period and later, marriage. Although the ages given for female adulthood ranged from 12 to 20 years, it was always agreed among those interviewed that the female becomes an adult before the male. For the male, adulthood comes with marriage and his ability to support a family. The ages given for male adulthood ranged from 15 to 25 years. Going away to school or finding a job in another country would cause others to consider the male an adult sooner. The eldest son often is considered an adult after the death of his father, even if he is still relatively young. 2.7 What rights do individuals have within a community, within society? What right do families have? What rights do clans have within society? What rights do males have? What rights do females have? There is much freedom within a village, though all people are subject to the authority of the chief. Within the family, the rights of males are subject to the family as a whole, but especially to the will of one's father, uncles, older brothers and village leaders. Females are subject to their husbands, brothers, elders, etc. Females have few rights, although they can have influence. Men and women in the city have more individual rights than those in the village, especially those on their own. Fathers and brothers can still exert influence in decision making for those in the city on their own; if the father or older brother insists, for example, that a younger brother come home, he must come home. There is a measure of freedom in the culture, but there is also a place for each person, and he or she is subject to a line of authority. The female always finds herself in a submissive role, although the Songhai woman seems to have a more respected role than that of her Zerma counterpart. The male is required to submit to age and family ties. For persons to find their places in the society, they must follow the traditions of the community and of the family structure. 2.8 How are leaders chosen? Who is eligible? When are they eligible? In the traditional Songhai society, the leader or chief always comes from the same family of nobles. The nobles are descended from Asika Mohammed Toure (Asika the Great), King of the Songhai Empire during its greatest period from 1493- 1527. The current chief remains in power until his death. When he dies, only members of his extended family can take his place. If more than one family member desires the position, an election is held. The oldest son of the chief is usually favored as his replacement. A newly elected or appointed chief is generally between the ages of 30 and 40 years. To be a chief, one must be male and be married. For government positions in Niger, by constitutional law, all are eligible and are chosen by vote. Due to the Islamic and cultural influences of the country, it is hard, but not impossible, for a woman to gain an office. A leader's qualifications include wisdom, age, intelligence and integrity. Generally, traditional chiefs and systems are considered more important by the Songhai than by elected government officials, although some of the youth may respect the elected government over traditional leaders, depending on their education. 2.8.1 Under what conditions and by what rules are traditional leaders chosen? Traditional leadership comes from the same family and passes from father to oldest son in many cases. Government leaders are chosen by vote for a specific period of time. Sometimes other government leaders appoint them. 2.8.2 How are leaders recognized by society, by the community? The traditional leader of a village is given much respect. In the more traditional areas, a person must remove his or her shoes in his presence, and it is forbidden to touch him. One must bow when approaching him and never turn one's back. He is usually dressed in a grand boubou, his head covered by a hat or turban. He usually carries a staff or cane of some type. He also has a special chair to sit on or pile of rugs and cushions. It is the customary for his assistants to travel with him. If one wishes to be accepted into a village, he is required to show respect to and earn the endorsement of the chief. 2.8.3 How are leaders changed? In the area from Niamey to Gotheye, the traditional chief can be removed from his place of authority, but this is very difficult and rare. If a chief becomes to old or sick to carry on his duties, he may then request that one of his family members replace him before his death. The leaders of a village can request the canton chief or the government of Niger to replace a chief if there are many problems with him. Although this action is possible, it is a rare occurrence. Government changes, both local and national, come from military removal, votes, end of terms or removal by the president or other government official. 2.8.4 What are the rights and responsibilities of leaders? The leaders are responsible for the wellbeing of their villagers. They serve as judges during disputes. They attend all district meetings and make sure that their village's needs are represented and met. They preside over grain distributions and other aid activities. They listen to their people and try to understand their needs and desires. They play host to visitors to the village, giving them a place to stay and food to eat. They handle the sale of land, divorce decrees and other legal matters for their people. They are available to give advice in all situations. Leaders bring news from the outside for their people and inform them of the decisions made in the meetings that they attend. 2.8.5 How do leaders lose the right to lead? Most people responded that a chief only looses his power either by his death or by his choice. There remains the possibility of removing a chief who is dishonest or unfair, but the offenses must be very serious and repeated many times for this drastic measure to occur. 2.8.6 How do individuals relate to their leaders? The leader of the village is treated with respect. The village chief is available to his people and most are on friendly terms with all that live in the village. The chief of the canton is less accessible. One must have an appointment to speak with him. He is much more formal in his dealings with those who call upon him. 2.8.7 How do leaders relate to other leaders in the culture? Village chiefs are generally on equal footing with other village chiefs. Most seem to get along well. The canton chief demands respect from the village chiefs. On paper in the country of Niger, the central, elected or military government has more authority than traditional government, but in practice, it is the traditional leaders who make most of the decisions. Great problems and friction occur if the central government tries to enforce an unpopular change or tries to pass a law or decision that is contrary to the wishes of the traditional system. 2.9 What are the basic values within society that give it cohesion and security? The extended family unit is the most cohesive force of the Songhai culture, rather than the individual or nuclear family unit. Respect is given the aged members of the family. Most family members are willing to join in the care of other family members in need. The values instituted by Islam through the Koran are another binding factor in Songhai society. Most people agree on what is right and what is wrong. They also agree on the punishment necessary for those who break the rules of the Songhai society. People are generally content if their basic daily needs are meet. They have learned, for the most part, to be content with little. There seems to be a true community spirit in each village. The care of children is often a community responsibility, and the joy and sorrow of a member of the village are seen as one's own. 2.10 What are the basic taboos within society? The respondents stated that the strongest taboo in Songhai society is lying. It is only the worst kind of person who will tell a lie. One must never strike one's mother or father. If this happens, one must leave the village for several years. One may then return to ask for forgiveness. A pardon may be granted, but if the person ever repeats the offense he or she must never return. One must never take advantage, in any way, of an old person. To steal from or hurt an elderly person is one of worst offenses one can commit. Stealing is not permitted and is punishable by severe beating or sometimes death if the thief is caught. One must not use the left hand for eating or for passing things. One must only eat with the right hand. Men and women should not show affection in public. Sexual matters must not be discussed. One should never cause problems in someone else's family. The wife may not call her husband by his name. A child should not call his parent by their names. One must not talk while eating. Men and women do not eat together. (Some families would allow this if the children were not present). One must not tell someone his or her baby is cute, as it is believed to bring evil upon the child. In more traditional communities, one must not reveal knees or upper legs. One must not look an elder in the eyes, but must cast eyes downward. One must not put both hands on one's head or something bad will occur, such as the death of a family member. A woman must not sleep on her stomach or she will become sterile. One must not walk in front of another who is praying; it is disrespectful. One must never wave at a person with open fingers, for this is a curse. One must not discipline children if their parents are present. One must not harm an animal that belongs to another person. One must not play cards for money or otherwise gamble. One must not drink alcohol. A male must not shake the hand of a married woman. A village must not have more than one Friday mosque. 2.11 What are common traditions within society? The traditions of the society center on the marriage and the naming ceremony (baptism) of the babies of the family. Marriage traditions have been discussed. A woman will only discuss pregnancy with her husband in an indirect manner. She may tell him she is sick at her stomach, but will not tell him that she is pregnant. She may discuss her pregnancy with her closest friend, but not openly with other women in the village. After the first three months, she will start to go to the doctor and, though others will know she is pregnant, she will not discuss her pregnancy. With the birth of the first child, a woman will return to her parents' house one month before the birth. She will stay with her parents for two months after the birth. With subsequent births, she will stay at her own home during childbirth. It is customary for a mother or other female family member to come to her house and stay for 40 days to help with the newborn and household work. It is the responsibility of the father to purchase a 100-kg sack of millet, wood for heating water, 20 or 30 bars of assorted soaps and six meters of material for a new dress for the naming ceremony. The millet is pounded, and spices and sugar are added. The mixture is then boiled in water to a drinking consistency. This beverage is prepared each morning for the mother and her female visitors. The sack of millet is usually enough to make the beverage for about two weeks. It is believed that by drinking this beverage that the milk of the mother is increased and guaranteed. It is also guaranteed to fatten her up, a good thing for the Songhai, as they believe the larger, more obese a woman is, the more beautiful she is. The soap is cut into very small pieces, pounded and mixed with a little water in a bucket to become hard again. For bathing during the months following the birth, this soap is used by the mother and child. After the birth and before the naming ceremony, the father passes the Muslim priest's house and is given two or three names to choose from. Before the naming ceremony, the father will choose the name, but he will tell no one until the day of the ceremony. Seven days after the birth, very early in the morning, a barber is brought to the home to shave the head of the child. Most informants did not know why the head of the baby was shaved. They knew that it was the tradition and must be followed, but did not know the significance of the practice. One suggested that the baby would have headaches if the head were not shaved. Another respondent said a shaved head was proof that the child was not illegitimate. Another respondent said it helped the baby to be smart. Yet another person said it stated in the Koran that it was a sin not to shave the head of a newborn. Despite the misunderstanding of the custom, it is widespread. The hair is buried, or it is mixed with millet and a charm is made of it; it is then worn by the infant around his own neck. This charm is to protect the child from evil spirits. Then the Muslim priest reads from the Koran and leads the group gathered at the house in prayer. The priest will then demand the name of the child, and the father will tell all gathered the name he has chosen. The entire group prays again for God to bless the child. This time they use the child's name. The Priest is then given money, dates and cola nuts for payment for his blessings. Following this, breakfast is served to all that have attended the ceremony. Everyone then returns home, returning again at lunch to eat again and to celebrate the naming of the child. The afternoon is passed in drinking tea, talking, playing cards and listening to music. During the day, the mother and the newborn stay inside the hut and do not participate in the events. The female visitors go in the hut to congratulate the mother and to see the child. They also help with the preparation of the meals. The guests leave before supper. Observance of Muslim religious holidays is also ingrained in the traditions of the Songhai society, as are such animistic practices as possession dances. These dances are social, dress-up occasions complete with spectators and vendors of all sorts. The most talented musicians and dancers receive tips, as the Sohanci, or another medium, sing praise songs to various gods and ask for counsel. 2.12 What are the valued arts or art forms in society? The majority of the people listed water pots and woven mats as being typical decorative items made and appreciated by the Songhai. Drummers, singers, and storytellers hold a special place in the society as they participate in the possession dances and other practices of sorcery. Little time and effort is available for artistic indulgence. Many homes are decorated with purchased items such as brightly colored enamel pots, carved calabashes, wooden spoons, plastic bowls and buckets, or other kinds of household possessions which are also used on a daily basis. 2.13 What are the learning preferences of the people? Are most of the people oral communicators or are they mostly literate communicators? The vast majority of Songhai people communicate orally, rather than by written words. They learn through oral instruction, observation and apprentice-like, real life situations. They also learn by listening to the more elderly and later participating in a socially appropriate discussion group. Stories, music and riddles are repeated to convey the wisdom of the culture. If the person living in the country of Niger were educated, it would most likely be by the French school system. Because of the inadequacies of the public school, most literate people read at a very low level, comprehending little. Most interviewees believed the Songhai language very difficult to read or to write, and indeed, it is not a written language. Colonizing French began trying to write Zarma/ Songhai using French spellings and alphabet to approximate word sounds. In the mid-1900's others began to study the Zarma/ Songhai, attempting dictionaries and other written materials, including Bible translation. Currently, writers of Songhai materials in Niger follow no specific rules for Songhai grammar or spelling; they use the same guidelines the DAFA employees use for Zarma, which were drawn up in the 1966 Bamako Conference. 2.14 How is communication carried out? With whom? What are the rules? Communication is, for the most part, oral. The men of the village often meet and share the news in a determined place in the village-- under a certain tree or a hanger in the center of the village. If the news is very important, the men may return to their homes following the meeting, and share the news with all family members. Otherwise, he will share the news only with his wives. They will in turn share the news with their children. Communication most always flows from the male and elders down to the younger members of the home or village. To the western observer, Songhai communication seems indirect, but in actuality, it is much more direct and honest than communication within other related people groups. A messenger is often sent to deliver a message. Body language and gestures are very important elements in communication. Within the past several years, radio and television have become increasingly important means of communication. 2.15 What are the channels for news? Who can bear news? How? When and how is news recognized as official and authentic? Is there a certain place, time or art form whereby truth or authentic and authoritative news is given to the community? Official government communications in the capital of Niger are carried on radio or television. This communication then spreads into many of the outlying areas of the country. In smaller villages, drummers are still used by the majority of the village chiefs. These men travel through the village while beating their drums. They stop at intervals and deliver the news from the chief. This news from the radio, television and village drummer is considered official, but many times confirmation is requested of a respected person in the village. Gossip is confirmed by a wise and reliable source in the village or by a number of people who will agree the news is the truth. 2.16 How are individuals "educated" concerning rules within the community, society and the culture? Children are educated about the rules of their society by the family. The mother and father have the primary task of education; they are helped in this task by uncles, aunts, cousins, in-laws and grandparents. The teachers of the koranic schools also help to form the rules of the community and to instruct their pupils. In larger towns, would-be koranic students, who have been taken from the village setting and entrusted to the care of the Muslim priest by naive parents, are sometimes reduced to homeless children who beg on the streets to support the dishonest cleric. An old cleric once said to Paul Stoller, "… students are people who do not know the virtues of patience. The students…study the white man's talk and as a consequence they think like white men. When one of these students talks to you, he tells you that he knows everything. But know-it-alls know nothing. The students…do not understand that a person must grow old and study the Prophet's books in order to know just a little bit about the world. These students… have no mind; they are doing the white man's work. They do not respect those who are wise. The children of today… will not do." A group of older men also counseled Mr. Stoller by saying, "…one can learn only when he or she is of an age such that the brain is ready to receive knowledge. The mind of a child is not developed; he is therefore not ready for serious study. The mind of an adolescent is not developed; he is therefore not ready for serious study. The minds of women never develop fully; they are never ready for serious study. A man's mind can begin to receive important knowledge when he is 40 years of age, but it is not until a man reaches the age of 60 that he is truly ready to learn…the student of things Songhay must, above all, be patient." Knowledge comes with self-discovery from a clean, pure and strong heart. One must learn to hear and ask good questions. 2.17 How are individuals educated? Is there a formal education system such as schools? Is it for everyone? Is it pervasive? Is it respected? Is it effective? We encountered many varied opinions on education. Some families make education a high priority for their children and send them to various private schools in Niamey or other large cities. Many of those who live in smaller villages either see no need for education or have become disheartened by the poor public school system. Still others prefer koranic schools. It seems that again, more emphasis has been placed on the education of young boys. But one also finds young girls with a desire to learn. The educational system of Niger, organized during the colonial period in much the same manner as that of France, at all levels from kindergarten to university, is plagued by lack of funds and by strikes of both teachers and students. In general, a greater majority of people older than 40 cannot read; a greater majority of those younger than 40 can read. Literacy rates vary from village to village.

2.18 Describe the vocational respect ladder within society? What are the levels? It seems that government workers and farmers have about the same level of respect among the Songhai. When government workers received their salary on a regular basis, they were better respected than at present, now that their salaries are in arrears. A farmer with good crops and lots of animals still receives a great deal of respect in the Songhai culture. Any worker who has a regular salary commands respect. The higher the salary, the greater the respect. For most young women, the highest goal is to be married and to have children. There are many jobs that the Songhai feel are beneath them, but most stated that they would do anything rather than be dishonest or beg. However, for some people begging is a much more respectful career than making fari masa or pushing a water cart. 2.19 Describe how the society looks upon marriage? What are the rules in society concerning courtship, engagement, marriage and divorce? Most of the ceremony of marriage has been described elsewhere. The Songhai society places great significance upon marriage. A woman that reaches the age of 20 and still is not married is looked down upon. One man stated that if he saw a woman of 20 whom was not married, he knew that there was a problem. Marriage also brings respect and authority to the male. Divorce is a common practice and, in almost all cases, it is the man who initiates the divorce. In many rural areas, he simply throws the woman out of the house and refuses to let her return. In other villages, the chief issues a divorce. In larger cities, one may obtain papers of divorce from the mayor's office. 2.20 What are the rules of dress within society? In recent years, young, educated Songhai men have made a major change in their dressing habits. Nowadays they wear jeans or dress pants and untucked shirts (called a "thank you"), because they are much cheaper than the traditional African clothing. Even though the change in clothing for men is accepted, the traditional African dress is still preferred by older men and by officials (both traditional and governmental) and commands great respect. Women have not made a change to western dress for the most part. The most respectful women will cover all but the face and hands. Married women are required to wear a head covering as a sign of respect to their husband. A larger veil is worn on top of this head covering when she leaves the privacy of her home to show her submission to Allah. One can see any fashion in Niamey, but the women who wear short dresses, pants or tight clothing are looked down upon by the vast majority of the Songhai. 2.21 Describe law and order within society? Structure? Processes? The chief of the village is in charge of maintaining law and order. Most problems will be handled by the families involved or by the chief and his helpers. If the problem can not be solved, the police may be called. In larger cities, the police are used more frequently. Mob justice is accepted. Thieves are caught and punished by beating. Sometimes they are put to death. There is a formal legal system in place, but many do not trust it and claim that enough money can change any decision. The buddy system is also in place. If one knows someone in the police or a government official, one can get almost anything done. Often problems in contemporary society are attributed to declining faithfulness to Islamic belief and its practices, especially among the youth. 2.22 Describe medical care within the society? Type? Structure? Practitioners? From a western viewpoint, medical care is woefully inadequate. The National Hospital of Niamey is a true nightmare and is plagued by lack of medicine, supplies and personnel. Larger villages from Niamey to Tera have small clinics that are staffed by medical personnel with very limited training (usually a state nurse, which is a three year degree after high school, heads up the clinic and certified nurses, similar to an American nurse's aid, will help). These clinics have no running water or electricity. They are responsible for the health care of the town in which they are located and the surrounding populations. Some medicines are dispensed by these clinics; prescriptions are written for the more expensive medicines, if there is a pharmacy in the town or dispensary at the clinic. At these clinics one can receive treatment for illnesses, as well as prenatal check-ups, well baby care, vaccinations, health teachings and demonstrations on a variety of subject from family planning to water purification. Surgery is only done in Niamey or Tera. Most people are unable to purchase needed medicines, so they take their prescriptions to their white employers or aid projects. Most Songhai people still use a wide range of traditional medicines. These traditional medical practices are passed down through the females of the family. The grandmother of each family usually has a store of traditional medicines that she will dispense to treat her family. Animistic doctors (witch doctors) are also still prevalent; cures can be purchased from them, as well as from Muslim priests. These traditional healers practice alongside the clinic nurses, usually without anger or rivalry. Many children die from easily treatable diseases such as diarrhea and dehydration. The importance of primary health care, which includes vaccinations and check-ups, is unknown or not appreciated for many reasons. Sicknesses are divided into village illnesses (physiological) and bush illnesses (supernatural). Types of illness fluctuate with the season, however, malaria, respiratory infections, amoebic and bacterial dysentery, cholera, meningitis, urinary infections, birthing complication, skin infections, parasitic infections, polio and measles are common. Recent data from WHO reported a decrease in the average life span for a Nigerien from 45 years to 29.1. Common sources of health problems: lack of money to pay medical bills lack of availability/ accessibility of trained medical personnel and clinics

lack of prenatal care improper waste disposal lack of latrine usage hunger and malnutrition low literacy rates (about 10%) harsh climate lack of primary care lack of or poor water sources

World View Songhai People of West Africa A Cultural - Social - Religious Profile The vast majority of the information in this worldview was as result of interviews compiled by Brad and Sally Womble, Wayne and Gayle Gullion with Songhai, March - June 2000. We have continued to update the material and correct it, as needed, as we observe and participate in their daily life. Paul Stoller's many works and impressions of the Songhai people give valuable, detailed insight into their religious practices. All comments or quotes written in boldface type have been taken specifically from the book In Sorcery's Shadow, by Paul Stoller and Cheryl Olkes, The University of Chicago Press, 1987. We do not claim to be professional ethnographers, nor anthropologists. This paper is simply a compilation of our observations, what we have read, and what we understand about the Songhai at this time, by the grace of God. We continue to learn much daily. Two to three million Songhai dwell along the Niger River from Niamey, Niger to Timbuktu, Mali and then eastward from Gao, Mali to Agadez, Niger. This worldview focuses on one of the groups who comprise about one forth of the total population of Songhai (400,000) that live in Niger between the cities of Niamey and Tera.

Family Structure

1.1 Is the family monogamous or polygamous? Describe the characteristics and conditions. Many of the Songhai families are monogamous, but it is out of financial necessity and not choice. The men interviewed stated that they would like to have at least two wives and, as money was available, they would to continue to marry to the limit of four. The men stated that it was better to have several wives because they could help each other with work and could provide for his needs when one of the wives was sick. It was also stated, by the men, that most women would prefer a monogamous situation, as trouble often arrives between wives. Being married legitimizes the male as a normal person in the Songhai culture. One Songhai man made a statement that if one had four different wives, then they must be separated into four different villages to maintain the husband's own sanity. 1.2 Is the family matriarchal or patriarchal? Describe the Ahead of the house. The Songhai family is patriarchal. The father has the last word on all subjects. He has the say over clothing choices for the family, travel and the use of money. In marriage the husband takes the place of the wife's father, and she is obligated to obey. An older male is never addressed by name; the spoken title of respect is "father" (Baaba). 1.3 What are the lines of authority in the family? Who makes decisions? How? When? Why? The authority line in the family rests with the male of the family. Age is also a factor. If an older father, his sons and each of their families live in the same concession, the father is the one that makes the decisions for the concession. Each one of his sons makes the decisions for his own family, but respect is given to the opinions of the older father. It was stated that one's father was always one's father no matter what one's age. In the absence of a father, the authority falls to the eldest son or to the eldest brother of the father. The mother can make some of the unimportant decisions for the family in the absence of the father, but for permission to marry or the disposal of estates, the oldest brother of the father is consulted in the absence of the father. 1.4 What are the expectations and rules for getting permission? The father of the family is the one who can give permission. As in most other cultures, each family is different in the measure of control the father demands and ultimately has. Most female members of the family must have the male head of the household's permission to make purchases, visit or travel. One can ask the mother of the family to approach the father with a request, but she can not herself grant this request. The sons of the family enjoy more freedom and can come and go, for the most part, without permission. The sons are still required to gain permission for important requests. It is best to talk to the father when he is alone to gain permission. One can ask for permission three times. If the same request is refused three times, it is useless to ask again. It was stated that one has the choice to disobey one's parents, but one will be judged and punished by God for this disobedience. It was also stated that people who disobey their parents are not trusted and many times asked to leave the village. 1.5 What are the expectations and rules for getting forgiveness? Requests for forgiveness are rare. Children can ask forgiveness from their fathers, mothers or older siblings. If it is denied, then one can ask an uncle, grandfather or friend of the family to intercede, asking forgiveness in one's place. If the village were aware of what had been done, the request for forgiveness would need to be made in front of the entire village. If the situation was unknown by the village, one's request could be made in private. One would never ask anyone younger for forgiveness. When the men were asked if they would ask forgiveness from their wives, they were shocked. Some said it would be impossible for a man to do anything to his wife that would require forgiveness. Others just laughed at the questions and seemed embarrassed by the thought of asking forgiveness from their wives. 1.6 What are the roles and consequent relationships between family members? Include husband, wife, children and relatives. What is the difference at different levels in the society and for the different ages? Who is responsible for whom, when and how? The typical Songhai family is an extended one. The value placed upon the importance and unity of this extended family is near universal. At the center of this family is the male head of household. It is upon him, most often, that the primary burden falls of keeping the family strong and whole. For a family's problems to become matters for public discussion is considered shameful. For this reason, problems tend to be resolved within the family.

Most of the men are subsistence farmers, though once members of a powerful and extensive empire. Despite their warrior past, they now determine such important matters as planting times, purchases of tools and other farming supplies, what livestock to keep and to trade, as well as numerous other matters of farm management. In the urban setting, the male head of household may earn an income by work outside of the household; he returns home with this money and saves or dispenses it to the benefit of the extended family. Other income earners, such as older, unmarried sons typically contribute their earnings, or a large part of their wages, to the benefit of the entire household. At the end of the millet harvest many of the Songhai men travel into neighboring countries to work, often the English speaking countries of Nigeria and Ghana.

The house is the responsibility of the mother. She is to take care of all family needs and provide for all needs of the father. She is important to the family as long as she is able to bear children. One proverb states, "The death of a dog in the compound is mourned more than the death of an infertile woman. If they are farm women, they may share in the planting and other farm chores. They may even have responsibility for certain small garden plots to raise a small crop of tomatoes, okra or beans. The pounding of millet and the drawing and carrying of water from wells to home also are chores that typically fall to the women of the family. In households with several wives, the women often share tasks or rotate the chores among themselves.

As for the children, the eldest son is held in high esteem. The eldest son becomes responsible for the family in the absence or death of the father. The sons of the family will help the father in his work or business and may assist with making purchases in the market, running errands, fetching tools and tending livestock. All children are to be quite and in their place, especially when the father is at home. "Children know haste; elders know patience." The daughters of the family start at the earliest age possible to help with the pounding of grain, carrying water, cooking and gathering wood. The daughters often start at the age of six or seven to help with the care of the younger brothers and sisters. Often young children (three to five years old) are allowed to freely roam the streets, becoming most troublesome. Songhai people say that children are animals; they will eat anything, say anything and do anything. Children are sometimes severely beaten for disobedience.

The male relatives of the father's side are very important to the family and are highly respected.  Elders, be they male or female, are respected.  After the age of 60, both the father and mother of the family retire.  The younger female members of the family take over the responsibilities of the house, and the younger male members of family assume the financial responsibility for the parents.

As in other household affairs, elders, such as grandparents, are greatly respected, and their opinions and praise are often sought. 1.7 Identify kinship lines and patterns of the extended family. Very close ties exist for the extended family. The father's family is given the most respect and attention. When the father's older brother visits the family, the wife and children are expected to respect and obey this visitor. This respect may also be accorded to a younger brother out of respect for the father of the family. Many times the uncles of the father's side are treated as if they were fathers. Many families share their children; hence the word "father" may be one's biological father or reference to an uncle who raised a child. Many times, a child is sent to live with elderly family members to help take care of them. Homes are often occupied by three generations of a family, five to 30 people living in one concession. Close family friends may also be considered family members. One is always, without doubt, expected to help with the problems of the extended family. Children who have the same mother and father as oneself do have the closest family tie, but one must respect all children of one's father. "A person's allegiance is to a lineage, a grouping of kin related exclusively through father's blood. In many ways, a man or woman is more attached to a brother or sister (of the same mother) than to a spouse. This is especially true of women, who do not share their possessions or their wealth with their husbands. In the case of divorce, which is very common among the Songhay, a woman loses her children to her husband's lineage." 1.8 How do families support themselves in this culture? What are the traditional and non-traditional means of support?

The traditional means of support is farming and raising of livestock. Many young men stated that if given the choice, they would choose a good farm with lots of animals. Great respect is given a man who can bring in a good crop. Because of the drought and difficulties of farming and livestock, many have been forced into other work such as small-scale commerce, teaching or government jobs. One never refuses to help with the needs of another family member; this is unheard of!

The rise and fall of the populations of towns and cities in accordance with the seasonal farm tasks of planting and harvesting crops perhaps best illustrate the continued importance of agriculture. Songhai males in cities and towns might close shops, postpone tasks, or take leave of their office jobs to return to their natal villages to help with the crop.

In a typical rural community, many extended families, often bound by ties of kinship, live in a village of huts made of locally available materials-- mud brick construction with grass thatched roofs. Here too are special huts constructed for storing crops, the most important of which is millet. Corn, sorghum and beans are also important crops.

Dry- season gardening can be done in gardens on the river's shores or where a source of water is available to raise vegetables. The farm villagers' lives are shaped by the agricultural seasons, especially in making sure that there is an adequate harvest to see them through the year. The Songhai farm family brings surpluses and cash crops such as peanuts, yams, tomatoes, and okra to market towns and cities to sell. The farm family may also earn cash by raising and selling of livestock, fishing and by gathering and selling firewood. The Songhai people are very proud, and they have a very strong work ethic. Work that was once done by slaves, including being a butcher, water seller, blacksmith or washer of clothes, would be difficult for the Songhai to do, but they would rather do any work than beg. Because of the desperate situation in all areas of Songhai population, many Songhai men are forced to leave their homes after harvest to search for work in neighboring countries. Each man will purchase clothing and other items needed by the family. Almost always he will return to his home with these purchases when the rains begin to work in his fields. When a Songhai man has worked very hard doing a difficult, physical labor, he says that he has worked like a donkey. 1.9 How does the family structure change as a result of death, marriage, separation, incapacity, incompetence or other significant changes? Death- Should the father die, the responsibility for the family falls upon the oldest male child. The mother of the family must mourn the death of her husband by resting in the house from 40 days to three months. After the period of mourning, the parents of the widow will probably arrange for another marriage and the children will be taken by the extended family of the father. If the mother dies, the widower will probably remarry. It is forbidden to scream or cry when a family members dies. Grief is expressed by not eating - usually for one or two days. The female members of the family cannot attend the burial ceremony, as they are considered too weak.

Marriage- A marriage in the family is a time of celebration and hardship. The Songhai cling to the marriage practices of the past even though they are a great financial burden to all concerned. Many times, a young man will spend up to six months wages on his marriage. Both the bride and groom's families are called upon to supply items that they can not afford. The parents still make the choice of one's spouse, and it is very rare that a child would refuse their parents' choice. The Songhai would not consider a match with a Bella, Toureg or a Fulani. On a different note, the second or subsequent marriage is a dreaded thing for most women. When the husband takes a second wife, it is as if he is saying that the first has not done her job. Conflict soon follows, and the financial burden on the family increases.

Divorce- Divorce rate is high in Niger. AIn 1990, 44% of women in Niger were divorced once and 15% twice with the age at divorce fluctuating from 20- 24 years (Care 1990). Due to the high divorce rate and death rates in Niger, the average number of marriages for a woman in her lifetime is three. As in most things, the woman has no rights after a divorce. All children over the age of seven at the time of the divorce stay with the father. Children under seven at the time of divorce stay with the mother and are returned to the father when they reach the age of seven. Incapacity or Incompetence- This situation is handled much as a death. The oldest son takes responsibility, if possible, and the extended family helps. 1.10

How is a family's heritage passed from one generation to the next? The family heritage is passed on in oral traditions. The young boys are taught to do the same work that their fathers and grandfathers have done. The young girls are taught to take care of children and the home. Detailed family histories are passed down from one generation to the next, and visits with the extended family are full of talk of the past. The Songhai are proud of their past when they were a strong and wealthy people; they are still are angry and suspicious of the Toureg people, who brought about the fall of their kingdom. 1.11 Do families have totems? What are typical ones and how are they used? Totems are objects conceived of as the emblems of a tribe, a clan or a family. A totem may be a carved object, a piece of land, a tree, a specific plant or a creature. Though the vast majority of Songhai are Muslim and their religion denounces idolatry, the superstitions associated with totems permeate the Songhai culture. Those interviewed categorically denied that the Songhai were animistic, but spoke freely of a plethora of spirits that controlled life, charms, family secrets and sorcery among their people.

Of those who admitted to having totems, many said their totems were animals. Some would not kill a snake because a snake had saved a family member's life and now had become the family totem. Some had purchased a goat, sheep or black chicken that was kept at the house as a genie. It was fed first, given clean water and never killed. This animal would keep evil from coming to the home and could also grant wishes and answer prayers. Some kept the skin of each year's Tabaski offering and believed it could bless the house. The family Koran, the holy book of Islam, may be particularly venerated and take on special significance beyond its ink and paper. It was stated that each family had a secret item, verse or charm that brought power and protection to the household. The father of the family held the secret. It might be a walking stick, a gourd, a coin, a ring or other item. The secret could also be a verse from the Koran or an incantation learned from a spirit or ancestor. The father would watch his sons and decide which one was the wisest, most patient and intelligent. When the father was near death, the secret would be shared with the chosen son and continue in the family. The family secret was never shared outside the family or with the other family members. The family with the most money and possessions was assumed to have the strongest family secret. 1.12 How is authentic news passed on within the family? News is passed by word of mouth, by radio and by newspapers and magazines. The word of a family member is rarely doubted. The father is usually the one who brings the news home. If it is very important, he will call a family meeting and share with everyone at one time. If not, he will share the news with the wife, and she may inform the children. News from the radio and newspapers if verified by asking those who have left the village for education and returned if the news is true. The zima in the village can cast shells to tell news or to verify the truth of reported happenings. 1.13 What are the rules of inheritance? In inheritance, the sons of the family are favored. Although the percentages were different, the sons always received the bulk of the estate with the girls receiving a token amount. Land is always passed on to the sons. The wives generally receive nothing, as a rule, and are expected to return to their families. 1.14 What are the sexual and mating roles and rules in the family? What are marriage rites and rules? All responded that the subject of sex is taboo and that they had never discussed it in their families. The marriage rites and rules are dominated by the exchange of money. The young man visits in the home of the young girl, and they agree to marry. Then, the groom sends a party to ask the father's permission and to deliver the first of the payments to the bride's family (50,000 CFA and up). Some of the payment is used to purchase the items that the young bride will take to her new home. The groom continues to purchase gifts (100,000 CFA and up) and provide money that is shared with the bride's family and friends (50,000 CFA and up). Most marriages are performed in accordance with Muslim tradition. The bride and groom are not present, and money again is paid for food to celebrate (50,000 CFA and up) and for payment to the Muslim priest (5,000 CFA and up) to bless the marriage. The bride is taken to the groom's home during the night by his sisters and a group of friends. The bride is expected to show sorrow in leaving her parents home. The wedding party takes place at the home of the groom to celebrate the arrival of the bride. In some areas the custom to prove the bride's virginity is still practiced. After her arrival at the groom's home, most of the guests depart except for one friend of the bride and two or three friends of the groom who will remain in the house for the first night. It is the purpose of this group that remains to make sure the bride is a virgin. The bride's family provides a white cloth, and first sexual relations occur on this sheet. After the marriage is consummated, the friend of the bride is brought in and, along with the groom, the sheet is inspected. If it is spotted with blood, the bride and her friend return to her parent's house with the sheet. The next morning, a party is held at the bride's home, and an older woman takes the sheet around the village to prove the bride was a virgin. When night falls, the friends of the groom search for the bride again and bring her back to the groom where she will now make her home. If the sheet is not stained with blood, the groom and his friends take the bride and the sheet back to her parents. The groom has the right to demand his money back and to refuse the marriage. If the groom wishes, he can send his friends to get the bride that night to be brought to his home and allow her to remain as his wife. The male is not required to prove his virginity. Among other groups of Songhai, pre-marital sexual relations are common. One is expected to be discrete and not bring shame on the family, such as becoming pregnant. 1.15 How are grievances settled within a family? What are the rules concerning mistreatment, separation, divorce, or a mistress?

Grievances are handled for the most part within the extended family, and it is a disgrace for a family problem to be handled outside the family. The father, again, is in control, and his word is the last word. Children are left to settle disputes among themselves. If a problem between adults can not be worked out between the two adults, an uncle or grandfather who is older than the two can be called in to settle the problem. There are insults, and then there are Insults, which usually make some reference to a donkey in relation to the person being insulted within the same sentence, such as "son of a donkey" or "conceived in the belly of a donkey" or "slow-witted as a donkey". A wife can leave her husband if he is abusive, but many stay because she fears the consequences of leaving. Many parents will not allow their daughters to return and would force the daughter to go back to her husband. The husband would most likely beat her for leaving, so she chooses to stay. In most cases, the husband is the only one who can get a divorce. The father handles all cases of mistreatment in his family. If the wife is being mistreated, family members may call in the religious teacher, or the wife can return to her family and they will accept her back into their household. To get his wife back, the husband would then have to go to his wife's family or send his friends to ask for her return. The wife can also talk to the parents of her husband. If he is not providing for her and her children, the father will speak to his son to correct the matter. It was stated that if the wife goes to her husband's family three times to ask for help and the husband does not change, she is free to divorce him. It is not considered wrong for the man to beat his wife if she has been disobedient or disrespectful. If the disobedience or disrespect continues, a divorce is almost a certainty. The husband can also talk with the parents of his wife, but the common practice is to punish her himself. Although in theory, it is bad to have a mistress, but it is an accepted practice. If the wife comes into contact with the mistress, there is trouble. Men are generally careful to keep this from happening. 1.16 What are the child-rearing practices and traditions?

The physical care of the children is delegated entirely to the mother of the family. Older siblings also participate in childcare. The children of each family are very much a part of the larger community, and the parents let very young children leave the compound with the assumption that their neighbors or people in the street will help look after them. Generally, children are breastfed for about two years or until the next pregnancy . Most communities do not believe in wet nurses should the mother of a breastfeeding infant die, because they believe that breast milk transmits the power to become a witch. Children are carried on the back of the mother or a sibling from one month of age until they can walk. Community members have the right to discipline others' children, or they can return the child to their parents to be punished. Children are often dealt with harshly, and it is rare to see large amounts of affection bestowed on a child. The father is involved in the education of the child once he begins to learn how to work on the farm or to learn his father's profession. The mother takes full responsibility for the education of the daughters and teaches them to cook, to clean and to take care of younger brothers and sisters. It does not seem that the Songhai place much importance on formal education and the local school systems are very weak. Many children never attend school. The girls begin at a very early age to work, and the boys are left with much more free time to play with friends.

1.17 How do children choose their life vocation, their role in the community?

Girls are expected to become wives and mothers. Boys, for the most part, are expected to follow their father's work. Depending on exposure to the outside world, some parents may allow their child to choose a profession. These parents make an effort to provide adequate education for the child. This is the exception, not the rule. Children or young people who wish to better themselves are allowed to, in most instances, but they do so by their own initiative. The child can gain an education and look for a modern job, but in so doing, they enter a world that their parents can not understand. If a child is successful in his work, it is expected that he will help to provide for all of his family members. There is little chance for a well-educated person to find gainful employment in Niger. Many government jobs go for months without pay, and there is little successful, private enterprise. 1.18 What are the special days or events for families? The special days for the family center around the birth of a child and marriages. The naming ceremony of children is very important. Seven days after the birth of a child, the Muslim priest arrives to name the child and pronounce his blessings on the child. The marriage ceremony has been described above. Another special time for the family is the observance of the Muslim holidays. Those mentioned by the majority of respondents include the Feast Day of Ramadan, Tabaski and Molud. During these holidays, the family spends much time together. The family prepares special foods and will most likely purchase new clothing. Even though all of the above is very financially taxing on the people, the celebration of each holiday is considered obligatory, and the family will go to great lengths to provided the needed items for each celebration. Many families are never out of debt as they continue to borrow and seek credit for each of the celebrations. 1.19 How is the family changing? The Songhai people have clung to their history, language and culture in a tenacious fashion. It is clear to observers of the culture that some of the Songhai youth are becoming westernized. It is also very clear that the majority of the Songhai people value their culture and have no intention of changing. As in all affairs, the male has been given more freedom to part with tradition while the female has been forced to maintain tradition. Most young men now choose western clothing, while the proper Songhai woman is still expected to wear traditional African dress. Males over the age of 40 are expected to dress in the traditional African clothing, if they wish to be respected. 1.20 How does an individual defend himself or herself within the family? Respect is always given to age. One can ask for the father to intervene in a situation. Or one may seek an older member of the extended family to act as an intermediary. Violence is common, and both men and women will hit each other. It is against all rules of good conduct to strike one's parent. In the rare case where this has happened, the child is forced from the family and his village. It might be possible to return after several years of separation and seek the pardon of the family, but pardon is not guaranteed. Most respondents had never known anyone who had struck their parent.

• Songhai languages